JAIKARAN FAMILY INTERNET TEMPLE & INFO CENTER
DEDICATED IN MEMMORY OF JAIKARAN FAMILY

JAIKARAN SOOKOO *** JESSIE JAIKARAN

LLOYD JAIKARAN *** GLORIA JAIKARAN*** DONEY JAIKARAN***

INDAR JAIKARAN** PEARLY JAIKARAN

KEVIN SAHADEO***
DEVANAND RAMNARINE ***(bandou) RAMRAJ RAMBHAWAN***
(KEER) BOODLAL RAMNARINE****

IN MEMORY OF

JESSIE & GLORIA
JAIKARAN

HARE KRISHNA ,HARE KRISHNA, KRISHNA, KRISHNA ,HARE, HARE.
HARE RAMA, HARE RAMA, RAMA,RAMA ,HARE,HARE.

UNIVERSAL PRAYER
Twamaywa Mata Chapita Twamaywa, Twamaywa Vidya Drabinam Twamaywa, Twamaywa Bandhu Chasakha ywa, arvam Mama Deva Deva

O God: You are my mother, father, relations, relations friend and it is you who bestowed on me everything including wealth and learning

Om Guru Brahma, Guru Vishnu, Guru Deva Maheshwara,

Guru Shaakshat Param Brahma,
Tasmoi Shri Guru yea mamo.

                     om shanti om shanti om shanti

                                         IN LOVING AND BLESSED MEMORY OF
GLORIA JAIKARAN (Mammy)
Born in Penal, Trinidad, West Indies on April 25^th, 1943. Attended the Penal Presbyterian School. Got married in June, 1962 in Sewlal Trace, Pepper Village, Fyzabad, Trinidad. Migrated to New York in 1994.
Died on September 6^th, 2011, Jamaica Hospital, Queens, New York. Cremated on September 9^th, 2011 in Flushing Crematorium, New York.
Mammy lived a very religious, happy, successful and charitable life. As a mother, daughter, wife, mother-in-law¸ grandmother, great-grand mother, aunt and friend making everyone around her very happy.
A visit to her home at 120-05 Liberty Ave, Richmond hill, New York, you were sure to feel most welcome. You were sure to get something to eat or drink. The joy and happiness that surrounded her are some good things that Mammy will mostly be remembered for. She loved singing and the Indian National Anthem was one of her favorites. She is now with her son, husband and God looking upon us.
Mammy was a goddess and could be easily compared to the divine mother- Saraswati, Mother- Lutchmi and Mother- Durga to me and everyone around her together with my Grandmother (Jessie Jaikaran) and Nanny (Dolly Ablacksingh).

DEDICATED IN MEMORY OF THE JAIKARAN FAMILY GONE BUT NOT FORGOTTEN, ALWAYS IN OUR HEARTS, THOUGHTS AND PRAYERS. YOU CAME INTO OUR LIVES TO LOVE, ENLIGHTEN, TEACH AND MATURE US, UNFORTUNATELY GOD NEEDED YOU AND YOU HAD TO SAY GOODBYE. YOU WILL ALWAYS BE REMEBERED AS THE FOUNDATION BUILDERS AND TEACHERS FOR GENERATION TO COME

Also all other departed of the jaikaran family

LUTCHMIN JAGGERNATH died Dec 24^th 1991 (Pluckroad nanny)

JAIKARAN SOOKOO born Sept 15^th 1919, died May 29^th 1964

JESSIE JAIKARAN born Oct 8^th 1924, died Nov 13^th 2005

LLOYD JAIKARAN born Jan 1^st 1940, died April 07^th 2011

GLORIA JAIKARAN born April 25^th 1943, died Sept 06^th 2011

DONEY JAIKARAN born Sept 28^th 1978 , died Sept 14^th 1995

INDAR JAIKARAN(small brother) born April 25^th 1941, died Oct 25^th 1998
PEARLY JAIKARAN born 1945, died June 3^rd 1999

RAMRAJ RAMBHAWAN(Bandou) born Nov 4^th 1939, died July 21^st 1974

KEVIN SAHADEO born June 25^th 1980, died April 14^th 2005

DEVANAND RAMNARINE born Nov 12^th 1969, died April 4^th 1971

BOODLAL RAMNARINE(keer) born Sept 25^th 1946, died August 5^th 1983

Gloria Jaikaran
Born in Penal, Trinidad, West Indies on April 25^th1943
Died in September 6^th 2011 Jamaica Hospital, Queens, New York

Husband Lloyd Ramjit jaikaran Born January 7^th, 1940 in Fyzabad, Trinidad W.I. Died on April 5^th 2011 Jamaica Hospital, Queens, New York

Children of 7

1. Anand Jaikaran --- wife Jenny Jaikaran
Children --- Sinead, Fayaz, Alisha, Aneisha

2. Vidya Ramesar --- husband Vishnu Ramesar
Children ---Vijai, Vishan, Veera
Grand --- Dana

3. Jai Jaikaran --- wife Suerekha Jaikaran

Children --- Gaitree, Kevin, Kimberly, Stephanie

4. Diane Maharaj ---husband Rick Maharaj

Children --- Diana

5. Kame Jaikaran ---wife Kelly Jaikaran
Children--- Krystal, Kaveena, Kyle

6.Helen Sooch ---husband Bobby Sooch
Children--- Sasha ,Sandeep , Jessie

7.Doney Jaikaran (deseased) (born Sept 1975; died Sept 1995)

Brothers --- 4

1. Dads , wife Radha
Children… Jackie, Jeny

2. Tony, wife Dorris
Children…Crhis, Natasha, Stephen and Sheenil

3. Motty, wife Shoba
Children… Vince and Katrina

4. Kenny wife Shushila (deceased)
Children… Vintra and Anil

Sisters --- 5
1. Golsie, husband Jay Ragoonanan

Children… Davan, Herbie, Doll, Max and Mukesh
2. Chilo, husband Paul
Children… Maggie, Carl, Kavo, Momilou and Bull
3. Kama (deceased), husband Krishna
Children… Neesha, Nare, Neela, Danny and Barbie
4. Petty (deceased), husband Mohan Bridgelal(deseased)
Children... Bryan and Annmarie

5 Sattie, husband Visham

Children… Avinash, Annmarie and Aditi.

Cousins of

Ramdatt, Mela, Anganie, Rohit,
Boyie, Breadi, Shonoi,
Sheila (deceased), Shirley, Seeta and Geeta

To name a few of cousins

Brothers in law; 2 ---

1. Indar (small brother) (deceased), Born April 25^th 1941; Died Oct 25^th 1998 PEARLY JAIKARAN born 1945 Died June 3^rd 1999 Children - Jagdis, Jenny Jill

2.Mukesh Jaikaran wife Samdai (Pop)
Children - Videsh, Sandra, Nalini, Cintra

Sister in law of

1.Shirley, Rambhawan husband Ramraj Rambhawan (deceased)
2.Golsin RAMNARINE husband BOODLAL RAMNARINE (keer)

(deceased)Born Sept 25^th 1946; died August 5^th 1988
Child
DEVANAND RAMNARINE (deceased) born Nov 12^th 1969; died April 4^th, 1971

3.Kamla Daharry husband Harry Daharry
Children - Ravi, Rishi, Steven

4.Leela Sahadeo husband Ancil (Blaise) Sahadeo
Children - Ricki, Kevin (deceased) ,Sarah ,Alex

5.Chandra Gunness Husband Besham Gunness
Chiildren-Vijai, Vishan, Trishan

6.Indra Ragbir husband Prem Ragbir
Children - Varun, Arun, Aruna

Nephews and Nieces –

Roy,Susan,Sunil,Diane,Kamal,Robin

Jadgis,Jenny ,Jill
Sandra,Nalini,Cintra
Ravi,Rishi,stephen
Ricki,Kevin (deceased) ,Serra ,Alex
Varun, Arun, Aruna
Devan, Herbie, Mukesh, Doll,
Maggie, Carl, Kavo, Momilou, Bull
Danny,Barbra,Neisha,
2^nd YEAR ANNIVERSARY TO BE HELD AT

TU KITNI ACHHI HAI – Lyrics

Tu kitni achchhi hai, tu kitni bholi hai
Pyaari pyaari hai ((o maa aa aa o maa ))
Ke yeh jo duniya hai, yeh ban hai kaanto ka
Tu phulwaari hai ((o maa aa aa o maa))

Dukhan laagi hai maa teri akhiya - 2
Mere liye jaagi hai tu saari saari ratiya
O meri nindiya pe apni nindiya bhi tune waari hai
O maa aa aa o maa-2

Apna nahi tujhe sukh dukh koyi – 2
Main muskaaya tu muskaayi, main roya tu royi
Mere hasane pe, mere rone pe tu balihaari hai
O maa aa aa o maa – 2

Maa bachcho ki ja hoti hai – 2
Woh hote hai kismatwale jinake maa hoti hai
Kitni sundar hai, kitni shital hai
Nyaari nyaari hai ((o maa aa aa o maa)) Tu kitni achchhi hai…

Explanation: You are so good, you are so simple,
You are very loveable, oh mom, oh mom
That, the world this is, is a garden of thorns,
You are the caretaker, oh dear mum
Your eyes are now tired and sore mom
You have been awake for me, all nights
You have lost your sleep so I could sleep well, oh my dear mom
You don’t worry about your happiness and grief
If I smile, you smile, If I cry, you cry
you give away to my crying and my laughter oh dear mom
A mother is the life of the children
Those are the fortunate ones, the ones who have moms
so beautiful, so pure- devoid of passion
so very wonderful!!, oh mom
You are so good, you are so simple
you are so loveable, oh dear mom

AAYE BHEE AKELA - Lyrics

Aaye bhee akela, jaye Bhee akela,
Do din ki zindagi hai, do din ka mela
Jinke liye hai toone Mahal sajaaye,
Matlab ke yaar saare Sabhi hai paraaye
Inhee ke liye hai kitna Toone dukh jhela do din…
Kahe ko too aaya jag me kya tujhko karna
Neki karam karle Duniyan se dar naa
Paap kl agahan me khud ko Kahe ko dhakela do din. . .
Hari kee sharan too ho jaa Dhyaan lagaale
Jeewan mile naa phir ye Jeewan ko paale
Khel jagat kasaara Usee ne hai khela do din. . .
Ye zindgi hai pyaare Ek jhootha sapna
Gairo kee duniya men Nahin koyee apna
Sabke Rahte huye Main hoon akela do din. . .

Explanation
We made our entry into the world alone and in a similar manner we shall leave alone. On careful analysis, we find that life is very short (2 days) and it is nothing but a MELA (Fair). You have decorated ‘mahals’ for many people by your kindness. But in return only selfishness becomes You have suffered so much in spite of your kindness. From where have you come? What is your purpose? Do good and hence fear nothing. It is you yourself who jump the fire of ‘sins’. Report to the shelter of Hari and begin your meditation 3g for now you have the human life. This may not be easily gotten again. The world ‘affair’ is a game and he is the captain of that game. Oh my dear this life is a false dream. This is a world of strangers, no one is yours. Although everyone lives I am still alone.

Religion can be explained as a set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe, especially when considered as the creation of a superhuman agency or agencies, usually involving devotional and ritual observances, and often containing a moral code governing the conduct of human affairs

Different types of religion

· Atheism

Atheists are people who believe that god or gods are man-made constructs.

· Baha'i
One of the youngest of the world's major religions.

· Buddhism

A way of living based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama.

· Candomblé

A religion based on African beliefs, originating in Brazil.

· Christianity

The world's biggest faith, based on the teaching of Jesus Christ.

· Hinduism

A group of faiths rooted in the religious ideas of India.

· Islam

Revealed in its final form by the Prophet Muhammad.

· Jainism

An ancient philosophy and ethical teaching that originated in India.

· Jehovah's Witnesses
A Christian-based evangelistic religious movement.

· Judaism

Based around the Jewish people's covenant relationship with God.

· Mormonism

The Church Of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

· Paganism

Contemporary religions usually based on reverence for nature.

· Rastafari

A young religion founded in Jamaica in the 1930s.

· Santeria

Afro-Caribbean syncretic religion originating in Cuba.

· Shinto

Japanese folk tradition and ritual with no founder or single sacred scripture.

· Sikhism

The religion founded by Guru Nanak in India in the 15th Century CE.

· Spiritualism

Spiritualists believe in communication with the spirits of people who have died.

· Taoism

An ancient tradition of philosophy and belief rooted in Chinese worldview.

· Unitarianism

An open-minded and individualistic approach to religion.

· Zoroastrianism
One of the oldest monotheistic faiths, founded by the Prophet Zoroaster.

Hinduism

Hinduism is not just a religion; it's more like encompassing a way life. The oldest organized religion has its root in antiquity. It is considered to be world third largest religion with innumerable followers. Thousands of different religions have evolved from this very faith since 1500 BCE. The variety in tradition, freedom of the belief and practices are the notable features of Hinduism

Karma means "deed" or "act" Mantra Power
Mantras are powerful sounds and when chanted with devotion produce enormous effects. Mantras are well-off in their meanings and their meaning can be meditated while chanting. As the mind concentrates more and more on mantra and its meaning, it conditions the mind and takes up to the higher states

Mantra Chanting
Chanting of mantra was a concept of the Vedic saints that includes mantras as one of the main forms of worship, whose end is seen as salvation. Basically, Mantra Jaap means repeating the mantra. Reciting Mantra has become an established feature of the Hindu practices.

Maha Mrityunjaya Mantra
Mahamrityunjaya Mantra is a great mantra dedicated to Lord Shiva. It is called Maha Mritunjaya Mantra because it is a great death-conquering mantra. Sometimes it is also known as Mrita-Sanjivani Mantra. The Maha Mrityunjaya mantra is hailed by the sages as the heart of the Veda.

Ram Mantra
Lord Ram (Rama) is regarded as the seventh incarnation of Lord Vishnu. Rama is the symbol of courtesy and virtue, a man of values and morals. Hindu God Ram is also known as Maryada Purushottama, which means the perfect man. Sri Ram is an example of idealism; he has been the ideal man, the ideal son, the ideal brother

Saraswati Mantra
Saraswati is the goddess of arts, music, knowledge, and wisdom in the Hindu religion. Goddess Sarasvati is said to possess the powers of speech, wisdom and learning. Sarsvati is regarded as the dispeller of chaos and confusion. Saraswati Mantra is an important mantra of the Hindus that is recited for higher knowledge
Shanti Mantras
The Shanti Mantras are prayers for peace, in the Hindu Mythology. Shanti Mantras are also known as "Peace Mantras". Shanti Mantras form the part of Upanishads.
Hare Krishna Mantra

Hare krushna hare Krishna Krishna Krishna hare hare
Hare Krishna Mantra is considered as the mahamantra (Ultimate prayer) of Kaliyuga (The Dark Age). Kaliyuga refers to the present era of machine, where truth and morality are at their lowest level. Lord Krishna is one of the most popular and worshipped deities of the Hindu religion. Krishna represents strength, beauty, knowledge and opulence. Shri Krishna is the very embodiment of love and divine ecstasy that destroys all pain and offense. Shri Krishna Mantra forms the part of prayers offered to the lord.

Ganesh mantra -- om gum ganapataye namaha

Shiva Mantra

Om namah shivaye Om namah shivaye
Om namah shivaye Om namah shivaye
Lord Shiva or Siva is considered as the destroyer of the world. Shiv is one of the most popular Gods of the Hindu religion. Shiva is one of the complex gods who is rudra as well as kind-hearted, simultaneously.
Maha Mrityunjaya Mantra
Mahamrityunjaya Mantra is a great mantra dedicated to Lord Shiva. It is called Maha Mritunjaya Mantra because it is a great death-conquering mantra. Sometimes it is also known as Mrita-Sanjivani Mantra. The Maha Mrityunjaya mantra is hailed by the sages as the heart of the Veda.
Ram Mantra
Lord Ram (Rama) is regarded as the seventh incarnation of Lord Vishnu. Rama is the symbol of courtesy and virtue, a man of values and morals. Hindu God Ram is also known as Maryada Purushottama, which means the perfect man. Sri Ram is an example of idealism; he has been the ideal man, the ideal son, the ideal brother

Saraswati Mantra
Saraswati is the goddess of arts, music, knowledge, and wisdom in the Hindu religion. Goddess Sarasvati is said to possess the powers of speech, wisdom and learning. Sarsvati is regarded as the dispeller of chaos and confusion. Saraswati Mantra is an important mantra of the Hindus that is recited for higher knowledge

Twameva Mata Cha Pita Twameva,
Twameva Bandhu Sakha Twameva,
Twameva Vidya Sarvinam Twameva,
Twameva Sarvam Mum Dev Deva.

MEANING:”O Lord, You Are My Mother, Father, Kinsman And Friend. You Are My Wealth Of Knowledge, Strength, Velour And Power. You Are My All God Of Gods”.

Guru Brahma Gurur Vishnu
Guru Devo Maheshwaraha
Guru Saakshat Para Brahma
Tasmai Sree Gurave Namaha

Guru Meri Pooja
Guru Govinda
Guru Mera Par Barahma
Guru Bhagwanta
Guru Meri Pooja

MEANING:”Guru is verily the representative of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. He creates, sustains knowledge and destroys the weeds of ignorance. I salute such a Guru.”

Om Asatoma Satgamaya
Tamasoma Jyotir Gamaya
Mrityorma Amritam Gamaya
Lead us from Deception to Truth, from Darkness to Light, from Death to Blissful Immortality

Om Bhur Bhuva Swaha
Tat Savitur Varenyam
Bhargo Devasaya Dheemahi
Dhiyo yo Nah Prachodayat
Oh God! Thou art the Giver of Life, Remover of pain and sorrow, The Bestower of Happiness, Oh! Creator of the Universe, May we receive thy supreme sin destroying Light,
May Thou guide our intellect in the right direction.

Mangalam Bhagvaan Vishunur
Mangalam Garudadhwajah
Mangalam Pundarikakshah
Mangalayatano Hari
Sarvamangala Maangalye
Shive Sarvaarth Saadhike
Sharnye Tryambake Gauri
Naaraayni Namostute

Shanti Mantras
The Shanti Mantras are prayers for peace, in the Hindu Mythology. Shanti Mantras are also known as "Peace Mantras". Shanti Mantras form the part of Upanishads.

Puja is a word in Sanskrit language. In Sanskrit, words are formed with meaning in mind. The 'p' removes all accumulated sins, and 'j' makes your life's purpose fulfilled

To attain the blessings of God, Hindu philosophy advocates two paths :
GYAN : Path of Wisdom BHAKTI : Path of Devotion.

Satsang ===sat = true, sanga = company Satsang is a sitting together with an enlightened person who usually gives a short speech and then answers questions.

The Pooja, when done properly guides oneself towards God, and while doing 'Prarthana' (praying), the Supreme Being draws closer to the devotee.

Dashavatara

Varaha, the boar avatar of Vishnu (18th century painting, probably of Pahari provenance)

The ten best known avatars of Vishnu are collectively known as the Dasavatara (a dvigucompound meaning "ten avatars"). This list is included in the Garuda Purana (1.86.10"11).^[18]The first four are said to have appeared in the Satya Yuga (the first of the four Yugas or ages in the time cycle described within Hinduism). The next three avatars appeared in the Treta Yuga, the eighth descent in the Dwapara Yuga and the ninth in the Kali Yuga. The tenth, Kalki, is predicted to appear at the end of the Kali Yuga.^[

1. Matsya, the fish-avatar who saved Manu – the progeniter of mankind from the great deluge and rescued the Vedic scriptures by killing a demon. Story can be found in the Matsya Purana.

2. Kurma, the tortoise-avatar, who helped in the Samudra manthan – the churning of the ocean. Story can be found in the Kurma Purana.

3. Varaha, the boar-avatar, who rescued the earth from the ocean, by killing her kidnapper-demon Hiranyaksha. Story can be found in the Varaha Purana.

4. Narasimha, the half man-half lion avatar, who killed the tyrant demon-king Hiranyakashipu, to rescue the demon's son Prahlada, who was a Vishnu-devotee

5. Vamana, the dwarf-avatar, who subdued the king Maha Bali. Story can be found in the Vamana Purana.

6. Parashurama, sage with the axe who killed the thousand-armed king Kartavirya Arjuna

7. Rama, the king of Ayodhya and the hero of the Hindu epic Ramayana

8. Krishna, the king of Dwarka, a central character in the Bhagavata Purana and the Mahabharata and reciter of Bhagavad Gita. However, in the original Dasavatara stotra, Balarama, the elder brother of Krishna, is stated as the eight incarnation, while Krishna (Lord Kesava) is the source of all the incarnation.^[20]9. Gautama Buddha^[

10.Kalki ("Eternity", or "time", or "The Destroyer of foulness"), who is expected to appear at the end of Kali Yuga. Story can be found in the Kalki Purana.

11.The monkey-god Hanuman who helped Rama – the Vishnu avatar is considered by some to be the eleventh avatar of Rudra (Shiva).^[43]^[44] Some regional deities like Khandoba are also believed by some to be avatars of Shiva.
12.Vishnu – As controller of the mode of goodness (sattva)

13.Brahma – Controller of the mode of passion and desire (rajas)
14.Shiva – Controller of the mode of ignorance (tamas)

Hindu Gods are male forms of the one God - Brahman. Humans have given different names and forms to the same god. The most commonly worshiped Gods of Hinduism are :

o   Lord Brahma/Prajapati : The Creator

o   Lord Vishnu/Narayana : The Preserver

o   Lord Shiva/Rudra : The Destroyer

   o Lord Ganesha

o   Lord Rama

o   Lord Krishna

o   Lord Hanuman

o   Lord Kartikeya

o   Lord Kuber

o   surya

Lord Brahma is part of the Hindu Trinity, which includes Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva. Within this trinity, Brahma is the creator, Vishnu the preserver and Shiva the destroyer. Lord Brahma grew in a lotus out of the navel of sleeping Vishnu. The daily alteration of light and dark is attributed to the activity of this God. The Hindu Goddess of Knowledge, Saraswati is regarded as the wife of Lord Brahma.

Lord rama
Lord Rama is known as the seventh incarnation of Lord Vishnu. Rama, the perfect avatar of the Supreme Protector Vishnu, has always been popular among the Hindu deities. Rama is the symbol of courtesy and virtue, a man of values and morals.

Krishna is the eighth avatar of Vishnu. Krishna means : Existence of Knowledge and Bliss. Krishna is the speaker of the Bhagavad-Gita, recognized as one of mankind's greatest books of wisdom there is only one Krishna (God).

statue of Shiva in yogic meditation.

Shiva meaning "One who purifies everyone by the utterance of His name" or the Pure One. Shiva is unaffected by the three gunas (characteristics) of Prakriti (matter/nature) namely Satva, Rajas, and Tamas. both creator and destroyer. He is the oldest and the youngest; he is the eternal youth as well as the infant. He is the source of fertility in all living beings. He has gentle as well as fierce forms. Shiva, known as the destroyer, is the third of the principal gods of the Hindu. The triad's two other gods are Brahma, the creator of the universe, and Vishnu, the preserver of the universe. Hindus believe that Shiva periodically destroys the world in order to recreate it and is the source of both good and evil.

Surya
The Sun God As per the Hindu Religion, Surya symbolizes the Sun God. Surya is considered as the only visible form of God that can be seen every day. God Surya is regarded as an aspect of Shiva and Vishnu by Shaivites and.Vaishnavas.

The Indian god Vishnu

·        Vishnu
·        Vishnu is the second god in the Hindu triumvirate (orTrimurti). The triumvirate consists of three gods who are responsible for the creation, upkeep and destruction of the world. The other two gods are Brahma and Shiva.

·        Brahma is the creator of the universe and Shiva is the destroyer. Vishnu is the preserver and protector of the universe.

·        Shri Vishnu is the preserver of the Trinity. His hands hold a "Shankha (Conch shell )" as a symbol of spread of the divine mantra "Ohm"; and "Chakra" (discus), as the wheel of time; and a "Padma(Lotus) which is example of glorious existence and a "Gada (Mace)" symbolizing the power and the punishing capacity of Shri Vishnu.

·        The conch: the sound this produces 'Om', represents the primeval sound of creation
·        The chakra, or discus: symbolises the mind
·        The lotus flower: an example of glorious existence and liberation
·        The mace: represents mental and physical strength

Shree Ganesh is the god of wisdom and learning, as well as the remover of obstacles.'Ga' symbolizes Buddhi (intellect) and 'Na'

The seventh Avatar of Lord Vishnu, Ram is conceived as a model of reason,

Hanuman is the epitome of wisdom, brahmacharya, bhakti (devotion/faith), valor, righteousness and strength. He is symbolized for his unwavering dedication to righteousness, unstinting performance of entrusted duties, and unfailing talents in serving Shri Ram.

Shirdi Sai Baba
Sri Shirdi Sai Baba is considered to be the epitome of spiritual enlightenment and religious harmony. One of the greatest saints ever born in India, He is believed to be a manifestation of God.

Goddesses

Durga
Names of Durga
Lakshmi
Lakshmi Chalisa
Names of Lakshmi
Radha
Saraswati
Basant Panchami
Ganga
Kali
Parvati
Sita

Durga ji is the supreme goddess in Hindu religion also known as Parvati. As a mother goddess, she is frequently called Maa Durga Durga Ji is worshipped as the epitome of 'Shakti' (divine power), to give deliverance from the evil and bring peace and prosperity in devotees'
Goddess Lakshmi : Goddess Lakshmi is the consort of lord Vishnu and the Goddess of wealth. She is depicted as a beautiful female seated on a pink lotus and being anointed by a pair of white elephants. Her vehicle is the white owl. She is worshiped by hindus and on Diwali it is said that she comes for a visit, so people light lamps to guide her to their homes. Shri Lakshmi is the goddess of wealth, light, wisdom and fortune, as well as luck, beauty and fertility. Lakshmi is the Mother of the Universe and Vishnu's Shakti. She is also the goddess of prosperity, divinity and purity

Goddess Saraswati.She is the consort of Lord Brahma and is the patron of music, arts, crafts and learning. Goddess Saraswati is usually depicted as fair and gracefully clad in pure white, riding a swan and holding a Veena and book. She is worshiped by students for blessing them with knowledge and memory. have the powers of speech, wisdom and learning. She is the goddess of knowledge and all literary arts including music, arts, and speech. She is mainly associated with the color white, which signifies the purity of true knowledge

Radha- the Embodiment of Love
The love story of Radha-Krishna has become a legend in the Hindu mythology.Goddess Radha is a well-known deity in Hindu Mythology. She is also known as Radharani in the northern part of India. For her deep devotion towards Krishna, Radha is usually depicted with Krishna. Radha is sometimes considered as the incarnation of Goddess Lakshmi, the consort of Lord Vishnu.

Goddess Parvati : She is the consort of Lord Shiva and mother of Lord Ganesha and Lord Kartikeya.

Goddess Sita Maa
Sita is the consort of Lord Rama, the seventh avatar (incarnation) of Lord Vishnu. Sita is the one of the most popular goddesses of Hindu religion. Devi Sita is regarded as the incarnation of Goddess Lakshmi, the divine consort of Lord Vishnu. Sita is considered as the ideal daughter, ideal wife, and ideal mother, since ages. Goddess Sita is remembered for her virtues and attributes. Devi Sita symbolizes all that is noble in womanhood.

Goddess Kali
Kali is one of the many forms of Shakti. Maha Kaali is the fiercest of all goddesses of Hinduism. The word Kali has its roots in the Sanskrit word "Kaal", which means time. And nothing escapes from time. Goddess Kali is sometimes referred as the goddess of death. But actually Kali brings the death of the ego

Agni

As the god of fire, Agni is central to Vedic mythology, representing renewed life and purification through the sun, hearth fire, and funeral fire. A messenger god who mediates between humans and deities through the sacrificial fire, Agni is the first word in the first hymn of the Rig Veda, and approximately 200 of its 1,028 hymns celebrate him. Only Indra, his twin brother, is mentioned more often in the Rig Veda. The god of fire, created from the rubbing together of two sticks, is said to have consumed his parents when he was born.

Indra

Indra, chief of the gods and god of war and storms in Vedic mythology, is the most celebrated deity in the Rig Veda. Indra is usually depicted driving a chariot while wielding his powerful weapon, a thunderbolt (vajra). Married to Indrani, the queen of the gods, Indra and his wife live in Svarga (the Good Kingdom, or Heaven) at the top of Mount Meru.

Soma

Soma, a sacred liquid pressed from a mountain plant, is Indra's signature drink and makes him invincible in battle. In the Rig Veda, Indra battles Vritra, an asura (demon),

Brahmacharis
Is a person who is usually a novice of a monastic order and who dedicate his entire life to humanity and God. The real meaning is one whose attention is fixed on the Supreme being and dedicate his lfie to the welfare of the people. Such Brahmacharis are very rare in this yug. but there are many such person like Swami Vikvekanada, Kanchi Peer, the great Chandrasekhara Swami, Adi Shankaracharya are a few who dedicated their life to God and also to the service of humanity. the true brahmacharis , who practiced everything in life. For them the life is simple and high thinking. that is why they are great.

pandit, (paṇḍitá
The term originates from the Sanskritic term pandit, (paṇḍitá), meaning "learned" (see also Pandit). It refers to someone who is erudite in various subjects and who conducts religious ceremonies and offers counsel to the king and usually referred to a person from the Hindu Caste System of Brahmins.

Brahmins.
The word Brahmin(preist class) has no significance at all in Modern times.As swami vivekaanandha said "Only by CONDUCT does a person beomes a Brahmin(Brahma Gjnaani=one who has thorough knowledge about Brahmam) or other caste. Yudhistra also in Maha Bharatha tells yaksha (Yama) "A brhmin is recognised by his/her CONDUCT(Charithram) only"

The words come from the Sanskrit root sādh, which means "reach one's goal", "make straight", or "gain power over".^[2] The same root is used in the word sādhana, which means "spiritual practice".

Sadhu rituals Sadhus are sanyasi, or renunciates, who have left behind all material and sexual attachments and live in caves, forests and temples all over India and Nepal.

A Sadhu is usually referred to as Baba by common people. The word baba also means father, grandfather, or uncle in many Indian languages. Sometimes the respectful suffix -ji may also be added after baba, to give greater respect to the renunciate. It is also a term of endearment for small boys.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (pronounced: [ˈmoːɦənd̪aːs ˈkərəmtʃənd̪ ˈɡaːnd̪ʱi]; 2 October 1869^[1] – 30 January 1948), commonly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was the preeminent leader of Indian nationalism in British-ruled India. Employing non-violent civil disobedience, Gandhi led India to independence and inspired movements for non-violence, civil rights and freedom across the world.^[2]^[3]Son of a senior government official, Gandhi was born and raised in a Hindu Bania community in coastal Gujarat, and trained in law in London. Gandhi became famous by fighting for the civil rights of Muslim and Hindu Indians in South Africa, using the new techniques of non-violent civil disobedience that he developed. Returning to India in 1915, he set about organising peasants to protest excessive land-taxes. A lifelong opponent of "communalism" (i.e. basing politics on religion) he reached out widely to all religious groups. He became a leader of Muslims protesting the declining status of the Caliphate. Assuming leadership of the Indian National Congress in 1921, Gandhi led nationwide campaigns for easing poverty, expanding women's rights, building religious and ethnic amity, ending untouchability, increasing economic self-reliance, and above all for achieving Swaraj—the independence of India from British domination.

Gandhi led Indians in protesting the national salt tax with the 400 km (250 mi) Dandi Salt March in 1930, and later in demanding the British to immediately Quit India in 1942, during World War II. He was imprisoned for that and for numerous other political offenses over the years. Gandhi sought to practice non-violence and truth in all situations, and advocated that others do the same. He saw the villages as the core of the true India and promoted self sufficiency; he did not support the industrialization programs of his disciple Jawaharlal Nehru. He lived modestly in a self-sufficient residential community and wore the traditional Indian dhoti and shawl, woven with yarn he had hand spun on a charkha. His political enemy Winston Churchill ridiculed him as a "half-naked fakir."^[4] He was a dedicated vegetarian, and undertook long fasts as means of both self-purification and political mobilization.

In his last year, unhappy at the partition of India, Gandhi worked to stop the carnage between Muslims on the one hand and Hindus and Sikhs that raged in the border area between India and Pakistan. He was assassinated on 30 January 1948 by a Hindu nationalist who thought Gandhi was too sympathetic to India's Muslims. 30 January is observed as Martyrs' Day in India. The honourific Mahatma (Sanskrit: mahāt̪mā or "Great Soul", was applied to him by 1914.^[5] In India he was also called Bapu (Gujarati: bāpuː or "Father"). He is known in India as the Father of the Nation;^[6] his birthday, 2 October, is commemorated there as Gandhi Jayanti, a national holiday, and world-wide as the International Day of Non-Violence. Gandhi's philosophy was not theoretical but one of pragmatism, that is, practicing his principles in real time. Asked to give a message to the people, he would respond, "My life is my message."^[7]

The Boston Tea Party

Despite its quaint-sounding name, the 1773 "tea party" was in fact a bitter reaction to harsh new British taxation acts. Over the course of three hours on Dec. 16, more than 100 colonists secretly boarded three British ships arriving in harbor and dumped 45 tons of tea into the water. The unorthodox protest was a key precursor to the American Revolution.

Hindus eating meat

, Hindus do not eat beef or other meat because they consider animals sacred beings, capable of bearing the incarnations of gods. Hindus regard the cow as sacred?" and, "Is there a rule about Hindus eating meat?". Cows amd otter animal make young ones and give milk,that you make yogurt , butter and cheese to name a few for their lifetime

Arti

Arti refers to the traditional Hindu devotional song. Arti is performed and sung to develop the highest love for God. In Sanskrit "Aa" means "towards", and "rati" means "the highest love for God".

The word, mantra, is composed of two parts of the Sanskrit language. “Man”, means “to think” and “-tra” is attached to the names for tools. So, “mantra” means “a tool to think with.

Howan

Whereas puja worships the Divine with form, homa worships the Divine without form. Fire is the symbol of the formless Divine. Whereas puja aims at the opening of the heart, homa aims at awakening the mind and consciousness.

Chalisa
Chalisa or chaleesa refers to Hindu devotional poem consisting of Forty Verses. The word “Chalisa” comes from “chalees” which means Forty.
These chalisa verses sing the praise and recall noble deeds of the deity to whom poem is devoted. It is believed that with constant recitation and fervent devotion one can become free from all sins and sufferings.

The Mahabharata is said to be the longest poem in the world at 100,000 verses strong.

Navaratri" literally means "nine nights." This festival is observed twice a year, once in the beginning of summer and again at the onset of winter. Navaratri is divided into sets of three days to adore different aspects of the supreme goddess.

On the first three days, the Mother is invoked as powerful force called Durga in order to destroy all our impurities, vices and defects. The next three days, the Mother is adored as a giver of spiritual wealth, Lakshmi, who is considered to have the power of bestowing on her devotees the inexhaustible wealth.

The final set of three days is spent in worshipping the mother as the goddess of wisdom, Saraswati. In order have all-round success in life, we need the blessings of all three aspects of the divine mother; hence, the worship for nine nights.

Nava-ratri" literally means "nine nights." This festival is observed twice a year, once in the beginning of summer and again at the onset of winter.

Bamboo
The common names of Lord Krishna-Venugopal, Bansilal, Murali and Muralidhar reflect His association with Bansuri or Venu, His constant companion. Bansuri is actually a flute made of bamboo

Banana
Though banana is not a tree but it is considered a tree because of its structure and size. It is a very sacred tree and all parts of the tree are used for some purpose or the other. For example, the trunk of banana is used to erect welcoming gates. The leaves are used to make the ceremonial pavilion. In some pooja, the leaves are used to serve "prashad". Just as leaves of bel tree are customarily offered to Lord Siva, it is believed that offering of the leaves of banana pleases Lord Ganesa. Banana as a fruit is offered to Lord Vishnu and Laksmi. Infact, the eleventh day of

        Coconut                                                                                                                         In Sanskrit, the name for the coconut palm "Kalpa vriksha", which means "the tree which provides all the necessities of life" or "wish-fulfilling tree". The coconut tree is given a special place in most Hindu households and great care is taken to nature the tree.. There is a popular saying, "Water the plant for five years, reap coconuts for life" . The coconut is used for all religious purposes. Infact, it represents the main "sthapana" of any pooja. water, mango leaves and coconut, also known as "Purnakumbha" is a symbol of Goddess Laksmi or Fortune and the coconut represents divine consciousness.                                                                                                                                                                Lotus

The Lotus is always considered as an evocative symbol of beauty, purity and divinity and a highly revered flower by all Hindus. In Hinduism many of the deities are pictured sitting upon a lotus or holding a lotus flower. Rising up pure and unsullied from the depths of the muddy swamp, the lotus represents the manifestation of God. The pure white lotus flower is the only plant to fruit and flower simultaneously. The flower is a symbol of Goddess Laxmi. One of the incarnations of the Mother-Goddess or Devi and wife of the Hindu god Vishnu, Laxmi is the goddess of fortune and prosperity as well as the epitome of feminine beauty
     Mango
The mango tree is another sacred tree of the Hindus. The significance of this finds mention in the Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Puranas. The mango as a fruit is a symbol of love and fertility. The leaf of the tree is used during most religious and social ceremonies of the Hindus. A "Purnakumbha" is a pot filled with water and topped with fresh mango leaves and a coconut and considered to be the "staphna" of the puja.

Neem
It is said that on the first day of Chaitra, after Amavasya, it is very essential to worship the neem and eat its leaves, mixed with pepper and sugar, as a safeguard from fever. The neem tree besides having various medicinal benefits is a highly revered tree among the Hindus because it is a manifestation of "Goddess Durga" or "Maa Kali". That is why the tree is sometimes referred to as Neemari Devi. The Tree is worshiped very intensely. Tamil Ladies, while worshiping Maa kali dress in red, carry branches of the Neem tree, and dance in public places swishing the branches as an act of exorcism and to purify the world.

Peepal
The Peepal Tree also known as "Ashvattha" in Sanskrit, is a very large tree and the first-known depicted tree in India. A seal discovered at Mohenjodaro, one of the cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation depicts the peepal being worshiped. According to the Brahma Purana and the Padma Purana, when the demons defeated the gods, Lord Vishnu hid himself in the Peepal
Red Sandalwood Tree
Sandalwood is commonly used for incense and religious ceremonies. The Red Sandalwood Tree is considered to be a very sacred tree and is like a sage among many people. It is said that all other trees are considered ordinary trees and are like ignorant men in front of a Red Sandal wood. Popularly known as Chandan. The paste is smeared on the foreheads of devotees of Vishnu and Shiva and it is said that the sandalwood paste is meant to cool and protect the "Agna chakra" present between the eyebrows. In India, the death pyre is made using sandalwood branches for centuries. According to legend, Lord Ganesha was created by Goddess Parvati out of sandalwood paste that she used for her bath and breathed life into the figure. According to Indian mythology,
Tulsi
Tulsi is always associated with purity and a highly revered and used for all religious purposes among the Hindus. It is considered very auspicious to have a Tulsi plant in the front courtyard of many Hindu households. Tulsi beads can always be seen around the necks of serious yogis and mystics in India, worn to purifying the mind, emotions and body. Dispelling the unwanted influences of others, gross and subtle, is one of the many benefits bestowed by Tulsi plant and hence worshipped by all

Bael Tree
In India, Bael tree is considered to be very sacred because it is associated with Lord Shiva. It is said that Lord Shiva is pleased by offerings of leaves from the Bael Tree, also known as bilva or bel tree. Thus, the Brahmanas worshiped Lord Shiva by for a period of one fortnight by offering bel leaves and that way satisfied Lord Shiva greatly. The fruit, flowers and leaves of the tree are all sacred to Shiva. Planting these trees around home or temple is sanctifying and is equivalent to worshiping a Linga with bilva leaves and water.

Raksha Bandhan/Rakhi
Raksha Bandhan/Rakhi is a unique festival of India that revolves around the deep love between brothers and sisters. Sisters tie a sacred thread or a Rakhi to their brother's wrist and in turn the brother gives them gifts, money etc. The tying of thread symbolises the trust placed by a sister in her brother and a promise by the brother that he would always be there to protect her.                                                                                                  .                Diwali/Deepawali
Diwali or the festival of lights is celebrated all over India on 15th day (Amavasya) of the dark fortnight (Krishna Paksha) of the Hindu month of Ashwin (October - November) every year. It symbolises the victory of knowledge over ignorance, of good over evil. It is said that Lord Rama returned to Ayodhya on this day and since it was Amavasya (new moon), the populace of Ayodhya welcomed back their king by lighting lamps. Lord Ganesha and Goddess Lakshmi are worshipped on Diwali and it is a festival full of joy, gaiety and lights.

,Mathura
   the birth place of Lord Krishna, Mathura, a small town on the River Yamuna in the state of Uttar Pradesh, is an important place of pilgrimage in the country. Krishna
                                                                                                                                      Uttarkashi                                                                                                                                         also holds the grace of having the origin of rivers Ganga and Yamuna. It is also known as the "Devbhumi" (The land of gods and goddesses). Uttarkashi is known for its temples dedicated to Parshurama, Annapurna, Devi, Datatryea, Kali Bhairon and other gods and goddesses

Vrindaban, Brindavan
Also known as Vrindaban, Brindavan, or Brindavana, or Brindaban, this holy place is the site of the original forest or forested region, in which Lord Krishna spent his childhood. It is believed that Lord Krishna was raised there in the cow-herding village of Gokula by His foster parents. Vrindavan is today famous for its numerous temples-both old Vaishno Devi Temple.                                                                                                                The Mata Vaishno Devi temple is located in the northern state of Jammu and Kashmir near the town of Katra. Over eight million devotees visit the temple every year making this the second most popular religious site in the country. The Vaishno Devi Temple is one of the most revered sites for Hindus, sitting at an altitude of 5200 feet.

Goddess Ganga
Ganga / Ganges is considered as the most sacred river of the Hindu Mythology. River Ganges is very much popular in India and is worshipped as a goddess. Ganga is the most revered river in the world. River Ganga is unique in itself with its mind blowing length and width.
According to the Puranas (Holy Scriptures of Hindus), the sight, the name and the touch of Ganga takes away all sins. As per Hindu thoughts, bathing in the river on special occasions causes remission of sins and facilitates the attainment of salvation. It is considered that Ganga bestows blessings of the highest order. Ganga originates from the Gaumukha, Gangotri glacier in the central Himalayas, located in Uttarakhand, India. Haridwar, Allahabad and Varanasi. Ganga drains into the Bay of Bengal through its vast delta in the Sundarbans.
The Ganges River                                                                             At approximately 20 millions visits a year, the Ganga is the first in our top ten most popular pilgrimage sites. The Ganges River, known as Ganga Ma or "Mother Ganges," runs from the Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal coming to a feat of 1,560 miles. To the many people living around it, and those who believe in its majesty, this river represents life, purity, and a goddess. The story of the Ganga is of how the goddess poured herself down from heaven upon the ashes of King Sarga's the Ganga is of how the goddess poured herself down from heaven upon the ashes of King Sarga's sons. It was this cleansing and self-sacrificing move that raised the King's sons to dwell in peace in heaven. It is also believed that anyone who touches these purifying waters even today are said to be cleansed of all sins.

In August 1947 the British partitioned the land, with India and Pakistan each achieving independence on terms Gandhi disapproved

Trinidad and Tobago

Last updated 3 days ago

Republic of Trinidad and Tobago


Flag	Coat of arms

Motto: "Together we aspire, together we achieve"

Anthem: Forged from the Love of Liberty

Capital

Port of Spain
10°40′N 61°31′W / 10.667°N 61.517°W /

Largest town

Chaguanas ^[1]

Official language(s)

English

Ethnic groups (2000)

40% Indian (South Asian)
37.5% Africans
20.5% mixed
(Venezuelans, Spaniards, French Creoles, Portuguese, Chinese, Britons, Lebanese, Syrians, Caribs, Italians)
unspecified 0.8%

Demonym

Trinidadian, Tobagonian

Government

Unitary parliamentary constitutional republic

President

George Maxwell Richards

Prime Minister

Kamla Persad-Bissessar

Legislature

House of Representatives

Independence

from the United Kingdom

31 August 1962

Republic

1 August 1976

Area

Total

5,131 km² (171st)
1,981 sq mi

Water (%)

negligible

Population

July 2011 estimate

1,227,505 (152nd)

Density

254.4/km² (48th)
659.2/sq mi

GDP (PPP)

2011 estimate

Total

$26.538 billion^[2]

Per capita

$20,053^[2]

GDP (nominal)

2011 estimate

Total

$22.707 billion^[2]

Per capita

$17,158^[2]

HDI (2010)

0.736^[3] (high) (59th)

Currency

Trinidad and Tobago dollar (TTD)

Time zone

(UTC-4)

Drives on the

left

ISO 3166 code

Internet TLD

.tt

Calling code

+1-868

Trinidad and Tobago ( ⁱ /ˌ t r ɪ n ɨ d æ d / & /t ɵ ˈ b eɪ ɡ oʊ /) officially the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago is an archipelagic state ^[4] in the southern Caribbean, lying just off the coast of northeastern Venezuela and south of Grenada in the Lesser Antilles. It shares maritime boundaries with other nations including Barbados to the northeast, Guyana to the southeast, and Venezuela to the south and west.^[5]^[6]
The country covers an area 5,128 square kilometres (1,980 sq mi)^[7] and consists of two main islands, Trinidad and Tobago, and numerous smaller landforms. Trinidad is the larger and more populous of the main islands, comprising about 94% of the total area and 96% of the total population of the country. The nation lies outside the hurricane belt.
The island of Trinidad was a Spanish colony from the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1498 to the capitulation of the Spanish Governor, Don José Maria Chacón, on the arrival of a British fleet of 18 warships on 18 February 1797.^[8] During the same period, the island of Tobago changed hands between Spanish, British, French, Dutch and Courlander colonizers. Trinidad and Tobago was ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens.^[9] The country obtained independence in 1962, becoming a republic in 1976. Unlike most of the English-speaking Caribbean, Trinidad and Tobago's economy is primarily industrial,^[10] with an emphasis on petroleum and petrochemicals.
Trinidad and Tobago is known for its Carnival and is the birthplace of steelpan,^[11] calypso,^[12]^[13] soca, chutney and limbo.

Etymology

Historian E.L. Joseph claimed that Trinidad’s Amerindian name was Iere, derived from the Arawak name for hummingbird, ierèttê or yerettê. However, Boomert claims that neither cairi nor caeri means hummingbird and tukusi or tucuchi does.^[14] Others have reported that kairi and iere simply mean island.^[^{citation needed}^] Christopher Columbus renamed it "La Isla de la Trinidad" ("The Island of the Trinity"), fulfilling a vow made before setting out on his third voyage of exploration.^[15]

Tobago's cigar-like shape may have given it its Spanish name (cabaco, tavaco, tobacco) and possibly its Amerindian names of Aloubaéra (black conch) and Urupaina (big snail),^[14] although the English pronunciation is /təˈbeɪɡoʊ/, rhyming with plumbago and sago.^[^{citation needed}^]

Trinidad
Both Trinidad and Tobago were originally settled by Amerindians of South American origin. Trinidad was first settled by pre-agricultural Archaic people at least 7,000 years ago, making it the earliest-settled part of the Caribbean. Ceramic-using agriculturalists settled Trinidad around 250 BC, and then moved further up the Lesser Antillean chain. At the time of European contact, Trinidad was occupied by various Arawakan-speaking groups including the Nepoya and Suppoya, and Cariban-speaking groups such as the Yao, while Tobago was occupied by the Island Caribs and Galibi.

Pigeon Point in Tobago, one of the top tourist destinations in the country

Parlatuvier Bay, a popular tourist destination in Tobago.

Christopher Columbus encountered the island of Trinidad on 31 July 1498. Antonio de Sedeño, a Spanish soldier intent on conquering the island of Trinidad, landed on its southwest coast with a small army of men in the 1530s as a means of controlling the Orinoco and subduing the Warao.^[16] Sedeno and his men fought the native Carib Indians on many occasions, and subsequently built a fort. Cacique Wannawanare (Guanaguanare) granted the St Joseph area to Domingo de Vera e Ibargüen in 1592, and then withdrew to another part of the island.^[14] San José de Oruña (St Joseph) was established by Antonio de Berrío on this land. Sir Walter Raleigh, searching for the long-rumored "City of Gold" in South America, arrived in Trinidad on 22 March 1595 and soon attacked San José and captured and interrogated de Berrío, obtaining much information from him and from the cacique Topiawari.^[16]

In the 1700s, Trinidad belonged as an island province to the Viceroyalty of New Spain together with Central America, present-day Mexico and Southwestern United States.^[17] However, Trinidad in this period was still mostly forest, populated by a few Spaniards with their handful of slaves and a few thousand Amerindians (Besson, 2000). Spanish colonisation in Trinidad remained tenuous. Because Trinidad was considered underpopulated, Roume de St. Laurent, a Frenchman living in Grenada, was able to obtain a Cédula de Población from the Spanish king Charles III on 4 November 1783.

This Cédula de Población was more generous than the first of 1776, and granted free lands to Roman Catholic foreign settlers and their slaves in Trinidad willing to swear allegiance to the Spanish king.^[18] The land grant was 30 fanegas (13 hectares/32 acres) for each man, woman and child and half of that for each slave brought. As a result, Scots, Irish, German, Italian and English families arrived. Protestants benefited from Governor Don José María Chacon's generous interpretation of the law.^[^{citation needed}^] The French Revolution (1789) also had an impact on Trinidad's culture, as it resulted in the emigration of Martiniquan planters and their slaves to Trinidad where they established an agriculture-based economy (sugar and cocoa) for the island.^[17]

The population of Port of Spain increased from under 3,000 to 10,422 in five years, and the inhabitants in 1797 consisted of people of mixed race, Spaniards, Africans, French republican soldiers, retired pirates and French nobility.^[17] The total population of Trinidad in 1797 was 17,718, 2,151 of whom were of European ancestry, 4,476 were "free blacks and people of colour", 10,009 were slaves and 1,082 Amerindians.

In 1797, General Sir Ralph Abercromby and his squadron sailed through the Bocas and anchored off the coast of Chaguaramas. The Spanish Governor Chacon decided to capitulate without fighting. Trinidad became a British crown colony, with a French-speaking population and Spanish laws.^[17] The conquest and formal ceding of Trinidad in 1802 led to an influx of settlers from England or the British colonies of the Eastern Caribbean. The sparse settlement and slow rate of population increase during Spanish rule and even after British rule made Trinidad one of the less-populated colonies of the West Indies with the least developed plantation infrastructure.^[19] Under British rule, new estates were created and slave importation increased to facilitate development of the land into highly profitable sugarcane estates, but mass importation of slaves was still limited and hindered, arguably, by abolitionist efforts in Britain.^[
The Abolitionist movement^[19] and/or the decreased economic viability of slavery as a means of procuring labour^[20] both resulted in the abolition of slavery in 1833 via the Slavery Abolition Act 1845 (citation 3 & 4 Will. IV c. 73), which was followed by its substitution by an "apprenticeship" period. This was also abolished in 1838, with full emancipation being granted on 1 August. An overview of the populations statistics in 1838, however, clearly reveals the contrast between Trinidad and its neighbouring islands: upon emancipation of the slaves in 1838, Trinidad had only 17,439 slaves, with 80% of slave owners having less than 10 slaves each.^[20]^:84–85
In contrast, at twice the size of Trinidad, Jamaica had roughly 360,000 slaves.^[21] Upon emancipation, therefore, the incipient plantation owners were in severe need of labour, and the British filled this need by instituting a system of indenture. Various nationalities were contracted under this system, including Chinese, Portuguese and Indians. Of these, the Indians were imported in the largest numbers, starting from 1 May 1845, when 225 Indians were brought in the first shipment to Trinidad on the Fatel Rozack, a Muslim-owned vessel^[22] Indentureship of the Indians lasted from 1845 to 1917, over which more than 147,000 Indians were brought to Trinidad to work on sugarcane plantations.^[23]

They added what was initially the second-largest population grouping to the young nation, and their labour developed previously underdeveloped plantation lands. The indenture contract was exploitative, such that historians including Hugh Tinker were to call it "a new system of slavery". Persons were contracted for a period of five years with a daily wage (25 cents in the early 20th century), after which they were guaranteed return passage to India. Coercive means were often used to obtain labourers, however, and the indentureship contracts were soon extended to 10 years after the planters complained they were losing their labour too early.^[19]

In lieu of the return passage, the British authorities soon began offering portions of land to encourage settlement; however, the numbers of people who did receive land grants is unclear.^[24] Indians entering the colony were also subject to particular crown laws which segregated them from the rest of the Trinidad population, such as the requirement that they carry a "Pass" on their person once off the plantations, and that if freed, they carry their "Free Papers" or certificate indicating completion of the indentureship period.^[25] Despite this, however, the ex-Indentureds came to constitute a vital and significant section of the population, as did the ex-slaves.

The cacao (cocoa) crop also contributed greatly to the economic earnings in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. After the collapse of the cacao crop (due to disease and the Great Depression), petroleum increasingly came to dominate the economy. The collapse of the sugarcane industry concomitant with the failure of the cocoa industry resulted in widespread depression among the rural and agricultural workers in Trinidad, and encouraged the rise of the Labour movement in the 1920 -1930 period. This was led by Tubal Uriah "Buzz" Butler, who, in combination with his Indian partners (notably Adrian Cola Rienzi), aimed to unite the working class and agricultural labouring class to achieve a better standard of living for all, as well as to hasten the departure of the British. This effort was severely undermined by the British Home Office and by the British-educated Trinidadian elite, many of whom were descended from the plantocracy themselves. They instigated a vicious race politicking in Trinidad that aimed at dividing the class-based movement on race-based lines, and they succeeded, especially since Butler's support collapsed from the top down. The Depression and the rise of the oil economy led to changes in the social structure. By the 1950s, petroleum had become a staple in Trinidad's export market, and was responsible for a growing middle class among all sections of the Trinidad population.

Tobago

Columbus reported seeing Tobago on the distant horizon in 1498, naming it Bellaforma, but did not land on the island.^[26] The present name of Tobago is thought to be a corruption of its old name, "Tobaco".^[15]

A view from Pigeon Point, Tobago over to Nomansland

The Dutch and the Courlanders (people from the small duchy of Courland and Semigallia in modern-day Latvia) established themselves in Tobago in the 16th and 17th centuries and produced tobacco and cotton. Over the centuries, Tobago changed hands between Spanish, British, French, Dutch and Courlander colonizers. Britain consolidated its hold on both islands during the Napoleonic Wars, and they were combined into the colony of Trinidad and Tobago in 1889.

As a result of these colonial struggles, Amerindian, Spanish, French and English place names are all common in the country. African slaves and Chinese, Indian, and free African indentured labourers, as well as Portuguese from Madeira, arrived to supply labour in the nineteenth and early twentieth century. Emigration from Barbados and the other Lesser Antilles, Venezuela, Syria, and Lebanon also impacted on the ethnic make-up of the country.

Independence
Trinidad and Tobago gained its independence from the United Kingdom in 1962. Eric Williams, a noted Caribbean historian, widely regarded as "The Father of The Nation," was the first Prime Minister; he served from 1956, before independence, until his death in 1981.

The presence of American military bases in Chaguaramas and Cumuto in Trinidad during World War II profoundly changed the character of society. In the post-war period, the wave of decolonisation that swept the British Empire led to the formation of the West Indies Federation in 1958 as a vehicle for independence. Chaguaramas was the proposed site for the federal capital. The Federation dissolved after the withdrawal of Jamaica and the government chose to seek independence on its own.^[
In 1976, the country severed its links with the British monarchy and became a republic within the Commonwealth, though it retained the British Privy Council as its final Court of Appeal. Between the years 1972 and 1983, the Republic profited greatly from the rising price of oil, as the oil-rich country increased its living standards greatly. In 1990, 114 members of the Jamaat al Muslimeen, led by Yasin Abu Bakr, formerly known as Lennox Phillip, stormed the Red House (the seat of Parliament), and Trinidad and Tobago Television, the only television station in the country at the time, and held the country's government hostage for six days before surrendering.^[^{citation needed}^]

Since 2003, the country has entered a second oil boom, a driving force which the government hopes to use to turn the country's main export back to sugar and agriculture.^[^{citation needed}^] Great concern was raised in August 2007 when it was predicted that this boom would last only until 2018. Petroleum, petrochemicals and natural gas continue to be the backbone of the economy. Tourism and the public service are the mainstay of the economy of Tobago, though authorities have begun to diversify the island.^[27] The bulk of tourist arrivals on the islands are from Western Europe.^[citation

Politics

: Politics of Trinidad and Tobago

The Red House: Trinidad and Tobago's Parliament Chamber 2008 (undergoing renovations).

Trinidad and Tobago is a republic with a two-party system and a bicameral parliamentary system based on the Westminster System. The head of state of Trinidad and Tobago is the President, currently George Maxwell Richards. The head of government is the Prime Minister Kamla Persad-Bissessar. The President is elected by an Electoral College consisting of the full membership of both houses of Parliament. The Prime Minister is elected from the results of a general election which takes place every five years.

The President is required to appoint the leader of the party who in his opinion has the most support of the members of the House of Representatives to this post; this has generally been the leader of the party which won the most seats in the previous election (except in the case of the 2001 General Elections). Tobago also has its own elections, separate from the general elections. In these elections, members are elected and serve in the Tobago House of Assembly.

The Parliament consists of two chambers, the Senate (31 seats) and the House of Representatives (41 seats).^[28] The members of the Senate are appointed by the president. Sixteen Government Senators are appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister, six Opposition Senators are appointed on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition and nine Independent Senators are appointed by the President to represent other sectors of civil society. The 41 members of the House of Representatives are elected by the people for a maximum term of five years in a "first past the post" system.

From 24 December 2001 to 24 May 2010, the governing party has been the People's National Movement (PNM) led by Patrick Manning; the Opposition party was the United National Congress (UNC) led by Basdeo Pandey. Another recent party was the Congress of the People, or COP, led by Winston Dookeran. Support for these parties appears to fall along ethnic lines with the PNM consistently obtaining a majority Afro-Trinidadian vote, and the UNC gaining a majority of Indo-Trinidadian support. COP gained 23% of the votes in the 2007 general elections but failed to win a seat. Prior to 24 May 2010, the PNM held 26 seats in the House of Representatives and the UNC Alliance (UNC-A) held 15 seats, following elections held on 5 November 2007.

Basdeo Panday became the first Indo-Trinidadian prime minister in 1995.

After just two and a half years, Prime Minister Patrick Manning dissolved Parliament in April 2010, and called a general election on 24 May 2010. After these general elections, the new governing coalition is the People's Partnership led by Kamla Persad-Bissessar. Persad-Bissessar and “the People’s Partnership” wrested power from the Patrick Manning-led PNM, taking home 29 seats to the PNM’s 12 seats, based on preliminary results.
There are 14 municipal corporations (two cities, three boroughs, and nine regions), which have a limited level of autonomy. The various councils are made up of a mixture of elected and appointed members. Elections are due to be held every three years, but have not been held since 2003, four extensions having been sought by the government.

Trinidad and Tobago is a leading member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME), of which only the Caribbean Single Market (CSM) is in force. It is also the seat of the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ), which was inaugurated on 16 April 2005. The CCJ is intended to replace the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the final Appellate Court for the member states of the CARICOM. Since its inauguration, only two states, Barbados and Guyana, have acceded to the appellate jurisdiction of the CCJ. The CCJ also serves as an original jurisdiction in the interpretation of the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas, to which all members of CARICOM have acceded.

Administrative divisions

Trinidad is split into 14 regional corporations and municipalities, consisting of 9 regions and 5 municipalities and administered by the Municipal Corporations Act 21 of 1990 and its amendments. The island of Tobago is governed by the Tobago House of Assembly:

Orders and decorations
There are four categories and ten classes of National Awards:^[29]

The Order of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago (formerly The Trinity Cross Medal of the Order of the Trinity) in Gold only.
The Chaconia Medal of the Order of the Trinity, in Gold, Silver and Bronze.
The Hummingbird Medal of the Order of the Trinity, in Gold, Silver and Bronze.

The Public Service Medal of Merit of the Order of the Trinity in Gold, Silver and Bronze.
Military
Main article: Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force

Trinidad and Tobago Coast Guard members during a practice exercise at Staubles Bay in Chaguaramas for the arrival of Prince Charles in 2008.

The Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force (TTDF) is the military organisation responsible for the defence of the twin island Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. It consists of the Regiment, the Coast Guard, the Air Guard and the Defence Force Reserves. Established in 1962 after Trinidad and Tobago's independence from Britain, the TTDF is one of the largest military forces in the English-speaking Caribbean.^{[citation needed]}

Its mission statement is to "defend the sovereign good of The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, contribute to the development of the national community and support the State in the fulfillment of its national and international objectives". The Defence Force has been engaged in domestic incidents, such as the 1990 Coup Attempt, and international missions, such as the United Nations Mission in Haiti between 1993 and 1996.

Geography
Main article: Geography of Trinidad and Tobago

Mayaro Beach in the south-eastern area of Trinidad

Trinidad and Tobago are southeasterly islands of the Antilles, situated between 10° 2' and 11° 12' N latitude and 60° 30' and 61° 56' W longitude. At the closest point, Trinidad is just 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) off the Venezuelan coast. Covering an area of 5,128 km² (1,980 sq mi), the country consists of the two main islands, Trinidad and Tobago, and numerous smaller landforms – including Chacachacare, Monos, Huevos, Gaspar Grande (or Gasparee), Little Tobago, and St. Giles Island. Trinidad is 4,768 km² (1,841 sq mi) in area (comprising 93.0% of the country's total area) with an average length of 80 km (50 mi) and an average width of 59 kilometres (37 mi).

Tobago has an area of about 300 km² (120 sq mi), or 5.8% of the country's area, is 41 km (25 mi) long and 12 km (7.5 mi) at its greatest width. Trinidad and Tobago lie on the continental shelf of South America, and is thus geologically considered to lie entirely in South America. However, the Caribbean islands are generally considered to be part of North America, and as the language and cultural links of Trinidad and Tobago are not to South America, but to the rest of the English-speaking Caribbean nations, the nation is often treated as part of North America.

Hillside along Diego Martin

The terrain of the islands is a mixture of mountains and plains. The highest point in the country is found on the Northern Range at El Cerro del Aripo, which is 940 metres (3,080 ft) above sea level. The climate is tropical. There are two seasons annually: the dry season for the first six months of the year, and the wet season in the second half of the year. Winds are predominantly from the northeast and are dominated by the northeast trade winds. Unlike most of the other Caribbean islands, both Trinidad and Tobago have frequently escaped the wrath of major devastating hurricanes, including Hurricane Ivan, the most powerful storm to pass close to the islands in recent history, in September 2004.

As the majority of the population live in Trinidad, this is the location of most major towns and cities. There are three major municipalities in Trinidad: Port of Spain, the capital, San Fernando, and Chaguanas. The main town in Tobago is Scarborough. Trinidad is made up of a variety of soil types, the majority being fine sands and heavy clays. The alluvial valleys of the Northern Range and the soils of the East-West Corridor are the most fertile.^{[citation needed]}

The Chaconia (Warszewiczia coccinea) is the national flower of Trinidad and Tobago.

The Northern Range consists mainly of Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous metamorphic rocks. The Northern Lowlands (East-West Corridor and Caroni Plains) consist of younger shallow marine clastic sediments. South of this, the Central Range fold and thrust belt consists of Cretaceous and Eocene sedimentary rocks, with Miocene formations along the southern and eastern flanks. The Naparima Plains and the Nariva Swamp form the southern shoulder of this uplift.

The Southern Lowlands consist of Miocene and Pliocene sands, clays, and gravels. These overlie oil and natural gas deposits, especially north of the Los Bajos Fault. The Southern Range forms the third anticlinal uplift. It consists of several chains of hills, most famous being the Trinity Hills. The rocks consist of sandstones, shales and siltstones and clays formed in the Miocene and uplifted in the Pleistocene. Oil sands and mud volcanoes are especially common in this area.

Although it is located just offshore from South America, Trinidad and Tobago is generally included as part of the West Indies by virtue of its geographical and historical heritage in the Caribbean.

Record temperatures for Trindad and Tobago are 38°C (100.4°F) for the high in Port of Spain and 9°C (48.2°F) in Diego Martin for the low.^[^{citation needed}^]

Biodiversity

Being so close to continental South America, the biological diversity of Trinidad and Tobago is unlike that of most other Caribbean islands, and has much in common with Venezuela. That biodiversity is distributed through the following main ecosystems: coastal and marine (coral reefs, mangrove swamps, open ocean and seagrass beds), forest, freshwater (rivers and streams), karst, man-made ecosystems (agricultural land, freshwater dams, secondary forest), and savanna. On 1 August 1996, Trinidad and Tobago ratified the 1992 Rio Convention on Biological Diversity, and has produced a biodiversity action plan and four reports describing the country's contribution to biodiversity conservation. The importance of biodiversity to the well-being of the country's people through provision of ecosystem services was formally acknowledged.^[30]

Animals
Information about vertebrates is good, with 467 bird species (1 endemic), more than 100 mammals, about 90 reptiles (1 endemic), about 30 amphibians (1 endemic), 50 freshwater fish and at least 950 marine fish.^[31] Information about invertebrates is dispersed and very incomplete. About 650 butterflies,^[31] at least 672 beetles (from Tobago alone)^[32] and 40 corals^[31] have been recorded.^[31]
Fungi
Although the list is far from complete, 1647 species of fungi, including lichens, have been recorded.^[33]^[34]^[35] The true total number of fungi is likely to be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.^[36] A first effort to estimate the number of endemic fungi tentatively listed 407 species.^[37]

Micro-organisms
Information about micro-organisms is dispersed and very incomplete. Nearly 200 species of marine algae have been recorded.^[31] The true total number of micro-organism species must be much higher.

Plants
Thanks to a recently published checklist, plant diversity in Trinidad and Tobago is well documented with about 3,300 species (59 endemic) recorded.^[31]

Economy
Main article: Economy of Trinidad and Tobago

Port of Spain cityscape, 2008

The oil refinery at Pointe-à-Pierre

Port of Spain The Hyatt Regency 2009

Trinidad is one of the wealthiest and most developed nations in the Caribbean and is listed in the top 40 (2010 information) of the 70 High Income countries in the world. It has one of the highest GDP per capita of USD $20,300 (2011) in the Caribbean.^[38] In November 2011, the OECD removed Trinidad and Tobago from its list of Developing Countries.^[39] Trinidad's economy is strongly influenced by the petroleum industry. Tourism and manufacturing are also important to the local economy. Tourism is a growing sector, although not proportionately as important as in many other Caribbean islands. Agricultural products include citrus, cocoa, and other products.

Recent growth has been fueled by investments in liquefied natural gas (LNG), petrochemicals, and steel. Additional petrochemical, aluminum, and plastics projects are in various stages of planning. Trinidad and Tobago is the leading Caribbean producer of oil and gas, and its economy is heavily dependent upon these resources but it also supplies manufactured goods, notably food and beverages, as well as cement to the Caribbean region.

Graphical depiction of Trinidad and Tobago's product exports in 28 color coded categories.

Oil and gas account for about 40% of GDP and 80% of exports, but only 5% of employment. The country is also a regional financial centre, and the economy has a growing trade surplus.^[7] The expansion of Atlantic LNG over the past six years created the largest single-sustained phase of economic growth in Trinidad and Tobago. It has become the leading exporter of LNG to the United States, and now supplies some 70% of U.S. LNG imports.^[40]

Trinidad and Tobago has transitioned from an oil-based economy to a natural gas based economy. In 2007, natural gas production averaged 4 billion cubic feet per day (110,000,000 m³/d), compared with 3.2×10^⁶ cu ft/d (91,000 m³/d) in 2005. In December 2005, the Atlantic LNG fourth production module or "train" for liquefied natural gas (LNG) began production. Train 4 has increased Atlantic LNG's overall output capacity by almost 50% and is the largest LNG train in the world at 5.2 million tons/year of LNG.

Trinidad and Tobago's infrastructure is good by regional standards.^{[original research?]} The international airport in Trinidad was expanded in 2001. There is an extensive network of paved roads with several good four and six lane highways including one controlled access expressway. The Ministry of Works estimates that an average Trinidadian spends about four hours in traffic per day.^[^{citation needed}^] Emergency services are reliable, but may suffer delays in rural districts.^[^{citation needed}^] Private hospitals are available and reliable.^[^{citation needed}^] Utilities are fairly reliable in the cities.^[^{citation needed}^] Some areas, however, especially rural districts, still suffer from water shortages.^[^{citation needed}^]

Telephone service is relatively modern and reliable.^{[original research?][}^{citation needed}^] Cellular service is widespread and has been the major area of growth for several years. Telecommunications Services of Trinidad and Tobago Limited (generally known as TSTT) is the largest telephone and Internet service provider in Trinidad and Tobago. The company, which is jointly owned by the Government of Trinidad and Tobago and Cable & Wireless, was formed out of a merger of Telco (Trinidad and Tobago Telephone Company Limited) and Textel (Trinidad and Tobago External Telecommunications Company Limited). TSTT no longer holds a monopoly in fixed-line telephone services due to Flow introducing a fixed-line service of their own, and their cellular monopoly was broken in June 2005 when licences were granted to Digicel and Laqtel. Laqtel however never started business.

Transport
Main article: Transport in Trinidad and Tobago

Intersection of Churchill–Roosevelt Highway & Uriah Butler Highway 2009

The transport system in Trinidad and Tobago consists of a network of roads across both major islands, ferries connecting Port of Spain with Scarborough and San Fernando, and commercial airports on both islands. Public transportation options on land are public buses, private taxis and minibuses. By sea, the options are inter-island ferries and inter-city water taxis.^[41]

Airports

The island of Trinidad is served by Piarco International Airport located in Piarco. It was opened on 8 January 1931. Elevated at 17.4 metres (57 ft) above sea level it comprises an area of 680 hectares (1,700 acres) and has a runway of 3,200 metres (10,500 ft). The airport consists of two terminals, the North Terminal and the South Terminal. The older South Terminal underwent renovations in 2009 for use as a VIP entrance point during the 5th Summit of the Americas. The North Terminal was completed in 2001, and consists of^[42] 14 second-level aircraft gates with loading bridges from the aircraft to the terminal building for international flights, two ground-level domestic gates and 82 ticket counter positions.

Piarco International Airport was voted the Caribbean’s leading airport for customer satisfaction and operational efficiency at the prestigious World Travel Awards (WTA),^[43] held in the Turks and Caicos in 2006.^[44] In 2008 the passenger throughput at Piarco International Airport was approximately 2.6 million. As of December 2006, nineteen international airlines operated out of Piarco and offered flights to twenty-seven international destinations. Caribbean Airlines, the national airline, operates its main hub at the Piarco International Airport and services the Caribbean, the United States, Canada and South America. The airline is wholly owned by the Government of Trinidad and Tobago. After an additional cash injection of US$50 million, the Trinidad and Tobago government acquired the Jamaican airline Air Jamaica on 1 May 2010, with a 6–12 month transition period to follow.^[45]

Demographics
Demographics of Trinidad and Tobago
As of 2005, most (96%) of the country's 1.3 million inhabitants reside on the island of Trinidad with the remainder (4%) in Tobago. The ethnic composition of Trinidad and Tobago reflects a history of conquest and immigration.^[46] Two major ethnic groups, Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonians and Afro-Trinidadian and Tobagonians, account for almost 80% of the population, while people of mixed race, European, Chinese, Syrian–Lebanese and Amerindian descent make up most of the rest of the population.

v t e Largest cities or towns of Trinidad and Tobago 2000 Census
	Rank	City name	Trinbago Regional corporations	Pop.	Rank	City name	Trinbago Regional corporations	Pop.
Chaguanas San Fernando	1	Chaguanas	Borough of Chaguanas	67,433	11	Arouca	Tunapuna-Piarco	12,054	Port-of-Spain Arima
	2	San Fernando	City of San Fernando	55,419	12	Princes Town	Princes Town Regional	10,000
	3	Port-of-Spain	City of Port of Spain	49,031	13	Siparia	Siparia Regional	8,568
	4	Arima	The Royal Chartered Borough of Arima	35,000	14	Couva	Couva-Tabaquite-Talparo	5,178
	5	Marabella	City of San Fernando	26,700	15	Tabaquite	Couva-Tabaquite-Talparo	3,314
	6	Point Fortin	Republic Borough of Point Fortin	19,056	16	Debe	Penal-Debe	3,127
	7	Tunapuna	Tunapuna-Piarco	17,758
	8	Scarborough	Tobago	17,000
	9	Sangre Grande	Sangre Grande Regional	15,968
	10	Penal	Penal-Debe	12,281

[edit] Religion

Main article: Religion in Trinidad and Tobago

Religion in Trinidad and Tobago
Religion			Percent
Christianity			65.7%
Hinduism			25.6%
Islam			6.6%
None/Others			2.2%

A mosque in Montrose, Chaguanas.

Many different religions are present in Trinidad and Tobago. Among Christian denominations (65.7%) are Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Seventh-day Adventists, Presbyterians, Methodists, Jehovah's Witnesses and other Evangelical groups. Other religious groups include Hindus (25.6%) and Muslims (6.6%) (2000 census).^[47]

Two African syncretic faiths, the Shouter or Spiritual Baptists and the Orisha faith (formerly called Shangos, a less than complimentary term) are among the fastest growing religious groups.

Similarly, there is a noticeable increase in numbers of a number of evangelical and fundamentalist churches usually lumped as "Pentecostal" by most Trinidadians (although this designation is often inaccurate).

A small Judaic community exists, as well as several other Eastern religions such as Buddhism and Taoism are followed by the Chinese community. There is also a small Baha'i community.

Language

English is the country's official language (the local variety of standard English is known as Trinidadian English), but the main spoken language is either of two English-based creole languages (Trinidadian Creole or Tobagonian Creole) which reflects the Indian, African and European (including Spanish) heritage of the nation. Both creoles contain elements from a variety of African languages; Trinidadian Creole, however, is also influenced by French.^[48]

Education
Main article: Education in Trinidad and Tobago

Children generally start pre-school at the early age of two and a half years. This level of tuition is not mandatory but most children start school at this stage as children are expected to have basic reading and writing skills when they commence primary school. Students proceed to a primary school at the age of 5 years. Seven years are spent in primary school. The seven classes of primary school consists of First Year and Second Year, followed by Standard One through Standard Five. During the final year of primary school, students prepare for and sit the Secondary Entrance Assessment (SEA) which determines the secondary school the child will attend.

Students attend secondary school for a minimum of five years, leading to the CSEC (Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate) examinations, which is the equivalent of the British GCSE O levels. Children with satisfactory grades may opt to continue high school for a further two year period, leading to the Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations (CAPE), the equivalent of GCE A levels. Both CSEC and CAPE examinations are held by the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC). Public Primary and Secondary education is free for all, although private and religious schooling is available for a fee.

Tertiary education is also free for all, up to the level of the Bachelors degree, at the University of the West Indies (UWI), the University of Trinidad and Tobago (UTT), the University of the Southern Caribbean (USC), the College of Science, Technology and Applied Arts of Trinidad and Tobago (COSTAATT) and certain other local accredited institutions. Government also currently subsidises some Masters programmes. Both the Government and the private sector also provide financial assistance in the form of academic scholarships to gifted or needy students for study at local, regional or international universities.

Culture

Main articles: Culture of Trinidad and Tobago and Music of Trinidad and Tobago

Members of a Costume band parade on the streets of Port of Spain during its pre-Lenten Carnival
This is the birthplace of calypso music and the steelpan, which is widely claimed in Trinidad and Tobago to be the only acoustic musical instrument invented during the 20th century.^[49] Trinidad is also the birthplace of Soca, Chutney, Parang, and Carnival (in the form that has been widely copied in the Caribbean and around the world). The diverse cultural and religious background also allows for many festivities and ceremonies throughout the year.

Trinidad and Tobago claims two Nobel Prize-winning authors, V.S. Naipaul and St Lucian-born Derek Walcott (who founded the Trinidad Theatre Workshop, working and raising a family in Trinidad for much of his career). Edmundo Ros, the "King of Latin American Music", was born in Port of Spain. Designer Peter Minshall is renowned not only for his Carnival costumes, but also for his role in opening ceremonies of the Barcelona Olympics, the 1994 Football World Cup, the 1996 Summer Olympics and the 2002 Winter Olympics, for which he won an Emmy Award.

Geoffrey Holder, brother of Boscoe Holder, and Heather Headley are also two Trinidad-born artists who have won Tony Awards for theatre. Holder also has a distinguished film career, and Headley has won a Grammy Award. Recording artists Billy Ocean and Nicki Minaj are also Trinidadian. Jazz trumpeter Etienne Charles is Trinidadian. Nia Long, Foxy Brown, Tatyana Ali, Alfonso Ribeiro, Dean Marshall, Sommore, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Gabrielle Reece, pop singer Haddaway and Tracy Quan are all of Trinidadian descent.^[50]

Sports

Olympics

Main article: Trinidad and Tobago at the Olympics

Hasely Crawford won the first Olympic gold medal for Trinidad and Tobago in the men's 100 m dash in the 1976 Summer Olympics. Nine different athletes from Trinidad and Tobago have won twelve medals at the Olympics, beginning with a silver medal in weightlifting, won by Rodney Wilkes in 1948,^[51] and most recently, a silver medal by Richard Thompson in the Men's 100m in 2008. Ato Boldon has won the most Olympic and World Championship medals for Trinidad and Tobago in athletics with eight in total – four from the Olympics and four from the World Championships. Boldon is the only world champion Trinidad and Tobago has produced to date in athletics. He won the 1997 200 m sprint World Championship in Athens. Swimmer George Bovell III has also won a bronze medal in the Men's 200m IM in 2004.

Cricket

See also: Cricket in the West Indies and Trinidad and Tobago national cricket team
Cricket is one of the most popular sports of Trinidad and Tobago, with intense inter-island rivalry with its Caribbean neighbours. Trinidad and Tobago is represented at Test cricket, One Day International as well as Twenty20 cricket level as a member of the West Indies team. The national team plays at the first-class level in regional competitions. Trinidad and Tobago along with other islands from the Caribbean co-hosted the 2007 Cricket World Cup. Brian Lara, world record holder for the most runs scored both in a Test and in a First Class innings and other records, was born in a small town of Santa Cruz, Trinidad and Tobago and is often referred to as the Prince of Port of Spain or simply the Prince. This legendary West Indian batsman is widely regarded as one of the best batsmen ever to have played the game, and is one of the most famous sporting icons in the country.

Football

Main article: Football in Trinidad and Tobago

The national football team qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup for the first time by beating Bahrain in Manama on 16 November 2005, making them the smallest country ever (in terms of population) to qualify. The team, coached by Dutchman Leo Beenhakker, and led by Tobagonian-born captain Dwight Yorke, drew their first group game – against Sweden in Dortmund, 0–0, but lost the second game to England on late goals, 0–2. They were eliminated after losing 2–0 to Paraguay in the last game of the Group Stage. Prior to the 2006 World Cup qualification, T&T came agonisingly close in a controversial qualification campaign for the 1974 FIFA World Cup. Following the match, the referee of their critical game against Haiti was awarded a lifetime ban for his actions.^[52] Trinidad and Tobago again fell just short of qualifying for the World Cup in 1990, needing only a draw at home against the United States but losing 1–0.^[53] Trinidad and Tobago hosted the 2001 FIFA U-17 World Championship, and hosted the 2010 FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup.

Other sports

Netball has long been a popular sport in Trinidad and Tobago, although it has declined in popularity in recent years. At the Netball World Championships they co-won the event in 1979, were runners up in 1987, and second runners up in 1983.

Rugby Union is played in Trinidad and Tobago.

Basketball is commonly played in Trinidad and Tobago in colleges, universities and throughout various urban basketball courts. Rugby continues to be a popular sport, and horse racing is regularly followed in the country.

There is also the Trinidad and Tobago national baseball team which is controlled by the Baseball/Softball Association of Trinidad and Tobago, and represents the nation in international competitions. The team is a provisional member of the Pan American Baseball Confederation.

Gary Goodridge, the former Pride Fighting Championship mixed martial artist, is from Trinidad and Tobago.
National symbols

The Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.

The Coat of arms of Trinidad and Tobago

Flag

Main article: Flag of Trinidad and Tobago

The flag was chosen by the Independence committee in 1962. Red, black and white symbolize fire (the sun, representing courage), earth (representing dedication) and water (representing purity and equality), respectively.^[54]

Coat of arms

Main article: Coat of arms of Trinidad and Tobago
The coat of arms was designed by the Independence committee, and features the Scarlet Ibis (native to Trinidad), the Cocrico (native to Tobago) and Hummingbird. The shield bears three ships, representing both the Trinity, and the three ships that Columbus sailed.^[54]

Sanatan Darma Maha Sabhat updated 7 months ago

organisation in Trinidad and Tobago. It operates 150 mandirs and over 50 schools. It was formed in 1952 when Bhadase Sagan Maraj engineered the merger of the Satanan Dharma Association and the Sanatan Dharma Board of Control. An affiliated group, the Pundits' Parishad, has 200 affiliated pundits. The organisation's headquarters are located in St. Augustine.

The President General of the Maha Sabha is Pt utham Maharaj and the Secretary General is Satnarayan Maharaj, son-in-law of the founder, Bhadase Sagan Maraj.

In 1881, a Sanatan Dharma Association was founded in Trinidad in an attempt to consolidate Hindus and lobby on their behalf. This Association, however, was not known for any significant advances in Hindu organizational development. Other groups existed by the 1920s including the Trinidad Hindu Maha Sabha, San Feranado Hindu Sabha, and the Sanatan Dharma Prabartakh Sabha. But these, too, were not especially dynamic in shaping the course of Hindu history. The most significant advances in Hindu organizational development of these Sabhas came as a response to the Arya Samaj and its missionaries.

The controversies stirred by the Arya Samaj spokesmen acted as a kind of catalyst for the leaders of the Sanatan Dharma community to make greater strides towards effective organization.The Sanatan Dharma Association was incorporated by an act of Legislature in 1932. A conservative group of Hindus established a rival organization, the Sanatan Dharma Board of Control which was also incorporated in 1932. Each of these served to represent the interests of the Hindu community with regard to social action or issues surrounding the orthodoxy; they also served to liase with colonial or parliamentary authorities. In 1935, in a move to demonstrate greater legitimacy, the Board became formally affiliated with the Sanatan Dharma Pratindhi Sabha based in Lahore,India. Pundits and laymen throughout the island became affiliated with one or the other of the two national Hindu bodies. The Sanatan Dharma Board of Control, for example had branches in 32 villages by the late 1930s.

The greatest development in the Hindu communal activity in Trinidad began in 1952 when under the guidance and direction of powerful Pundit Goberdhan JP of Siparia old Road, south Trinidad (who acted as a representative of the Governor general of Trinidad at difficult times) Bhadase Sagan Maraj united the Sanatan Dharma Association and the Sanatan Dharma Board of Control. In that year Maraj, a self-made millionaire and sugar union leader,merged the two Sanatanist Hindu bodies, to create a much more powerful pressure group and public organization. The new organization, the Sanatan Dharma Maha Sabha, was incorporated in 1952. The Maha Sabha’s parishad, or council of pundits worked towards a complete coordination of temples activities and the standardization of ritual procedure. Relatively few structured, permanent religious groups existed in Trinidad Indian villages until the advent of the Maha Sabha school building programme. Many temples were constructed or affiliated in addition. In order to ensure uniform teaching and practices, the Maha Sabha published literature to be used at all schools and temples.

Yet foremost on the new organization agenda was education, which its members saw as the key to promoting Hindu unity in all parts of the country, to promulgating the faith among future generations Hindus, and to provide Indians with greater opportunities for social advancement. Between 1952 and 1956 the Maha Sabha built no less than 31 schools all over the island. Today the Maha Sabha operates 42 schools in Trinidad, over 150 temples, and affiliated over 200 pundits.

Under the present Secretary General, Mr Satnarayan Maharaj, the Maha Sabha has modernized all 42 schools and built 5 secondary schools as well as 12 early childhood educational centers. Mr. Maharaj has also revived the observance of Phagwa and was instrumental in the creation of the Indian Arrival Day holiday and annual celebrations. The Maha Sabha introduced a Children’s Cultural Festival Baal Vikaas Vihar and the community has been challenged by this leader to enter into the computer age

THE BELIEF IN REINCARNATION:

Reincarnation is the religious or philosophical belief that the soul or spirit, after biological death, begins a new life in a new body that may be human, animal or spiritual depending on the moral quality of the previous life's actions. This doctrine is a central tenet of the Indian religions ^[1] and is a belief that was held by such historic figures as Pythagoras, Plato and Socrates. It is also a common belief of pagan religions such as Druidism, Spiritism, Theosophy, and Eckankar and is found in many tribal societies around the world, in places such as Siberia, West Africa, North America, and Australia.^[2]
we believe in reincarnation because we take the literal meaning of Hindu scripturesThey believe that human beings have souls. These souls are "immortal and imperishable." Thus a person's soul is in an everlasting cycle of life and death. They believe that you can only break this cycle when you achieve enlightenment..
and thus is pleasurable. However, the soul's stay at any level is only temporary, is its experience there is said to teach a lesson.
Hindus believe that your soul will come back as either an animal or human which very much depends on the life you had before.

Pitru Paksha

Observed by	Hindus

Begins	full moon day of Bhadrapada
Ends	Sarvapitri amavasya: new moon day
Date	September/October
2011 date	September 13 - 27
Celebrations	16 lunar days (the period comprises 16 lunar days, which may not correspond to 16 solar days)
Observances	Shraddha: paying homage to their ancestors, especially by food offerings
Related to	Ancestor worship

Pitru Paksha (Sanskrit: पितृ पक्ष), also spelt as Pitr paksha or Pitri paksha, (literally "fortnight of the ancestors") is a 16–lunar day period when Hindus pay homage to their ancestors (Pitrs), especially through food offerings. The period is also known as Pitru Pakshya, Pitri Pokkho, Sola Shraddha ("sixteen shraddhas"), Kanagat, Jitiya, Mahalaya Paksha and Apara paksha.^[1]^[2]^[3]

Pitru Paksha is considered by Hindus to be inauspicious, given the death rite performed during the ceremony, known as Shraddha or tarpan. In southern and western India, it falls in the Hindu lunar month of Bhadrapada (September–October), beginning with the full moon day (Purnima) that occurs immediately after the Ganesh festival and ending with the new moon day known as Sarvapitri amavasya, Mahalaya amavasya or simply Mahalaya. In North India and Nepal, this period corresponds to the dark fortnight of the month Ashvin, instead of Bhadrapada.

Legend
According to Hindu mythology, the souls of three preceding generations of one's ancestor reside in Pitru–loka, a realm between heaven and earth. This realm is governed by Yama, the god of death, who takes the soul of a dying man from earth to Pitru–loka. When a person of the next generation dies, the first generation shifts to heaven and unites with God, so Shraddha offerings are not given. Thus, only the three generations in Pitru–loka are given Shraddha rites, in which Yama plays a significant role.^[4] According to the sacred Hindu epics (Itihasa), at the beginning of Pitru Paksha, the sun enters the zodiac sign of Virgo (Kanya). Coinciding with this moment, it is believed that the spirits leave Pitru–loka and reside in their descendants' homes for a month until the sun enters the next zodiac—Scorpio (Vrichchhika)—and there is a full moon. Hindus are expected to propitiate the ancestors in the first half, during the dark fortnight.^[2]^[5]

Steps to follow to do Puja
Each and every sect, family or an individual have their own way of doing Puja. Every time when you say ''samarpayami'' (I ‘m offering), offer two akshatha with love and devotion to the lord.
(Akshatha is uncooked rice; if possible color it with kumkum, saffron powder, turmeric and a little bit of water. This can be made for a week in advance and can be kept near the Alter)

A typical Poja involves the following 27 steps:

.Dhyaanam Samarpayami (Think or meditate on the Lord)

Aawaahanam Samarpayami (Offering invitation the Lord)
Aasanam Samarpayami (Offer a seat to the Lord)
Paadyam Samarpayami (Offer water to wash the feet)
Arghyam Samarpayami (Offer water to wash the hands)
Aachamaneeyam Samarpayami (Offer water to drink)
Snaanam Samarpayami (Give bath to the Lord)
Maha Abhishekam Samarpayami (Give main head bath to the Lord)
Pratishtaapayaami (Make him seated)
Vasthram Samarpayami (Offer clothes to the Lord)
Yajnopaveetham Samarpayami (Offer the Holy Thread)
Gandham Samarpayami (Offer sandalwood paste/powder)
Akshatham Samarpayami (Offer Akshatha/ Rice)
Pushpam Samarpayami (Offer Flowers to the Lord)
Ashthothtra Poojam Samarpayami (Offer the holy 108 names)
Dhoopam Aaghraapayaami (Offer Fragrance / Agarbatti)
Deepam Darshayaami (Offer light to the lord)
Neivedyam Samarpayami (Offer Food to the Lord)
Phalam Samarpayami (Offer Fruits to the Lord)
Taamboolam Samarpayami (Offer betel nut and leaves)
Dakshinam Samarpayami (Offer money to the Lord)
Maha Nirajanam Samarpayami (Offer aarti to the Lord)
Pradakshinam Samarpayami (Taking clockwise rounds of arti)
Namaskaram Samarpayami (Offer Prostrations)
Mantra Pushpam Samarpayami (Offer incantations and flowers)
Praarthanaam Samarpayami (Offer prayers, request your desires)
Kshamaapanam Samarpayami (Offer apologies & ask for forgiveness)

Ramayana

The Ramayana tells the story of a battle between the Hindu god Vishnu and a demon called Ravana. None of the gods could fight Ravana because of a promise they had foolishly made earlier, and Ravana was messing with everyone and nobody could stop him. So Vishnu decided to be reborn as a man, and then he would not be a god and he would be able to fight Ravana.

So Vishnu was born as the prince Rama. Rama was supposed to be king when his father died, but at the last minute his father decided to make his brother king instead.

Rama and his other brother Lakshmana and Rama's wife Sita went away to live a simple life in the forest. But when they were living in the forest, the demon Ravana's sister fell in love with Rama and tried to get Rama to leave Sita and come live with her. When Rama said no, Ravana's sister attacked him, but Rama and his brother Lakshmana fought her off.

The demon went back to her brother Ravana on the island of Lanka (modern Sri Lanka) and complained to him that Rama had been mean to her and attacked her. Ravana was very angry because Rama had beaten up his sister. Also, Ravana’s sister told him how beautiful Rama’s wife Sita was. So he went to the forest to see for himself.

When Ravana got to the forest, he found that Sita was indeed very beautiful, and he stole her away from Rama and took her back to Lanka with him. Sita was very sad there and missed Rama very much.

Rama and his brother Lakshmana needed help to rescue Sita, so they went to see the king of the monkeys, Hanuman, who had the magic power to make himself bigger or smaller. Hanuman found Sita on the island of Lanka and told her that Rama was coming to save her. Sita was very happy, but then the demon Ravana caught Hanuman and set his tail on fire! In the end, though,

Hanuman went back to the forest and got Rama and Lakshmana, and they all went back with the whole monkey army to attack the island of Lanka. The monkeys made a bridge over to the island. There was a terrible battle, but finally Rama killed the demon Ravana.

Rama finally could go rescue his wife Sita! But when he found her, he was worried if she still loved him. Maybe she had fallen in love with Ravana while she was his prisoner? Rama made Sita walk through fire to show that she still really loved him. And even after she did that, and she was having his twin babies, Rama ended up sending her to live somewhere else. But in the end, Rama and Sita’s twin boys came back to their father Rama.

Characters

Rama seated with Sita, fanned by Lakshmana, while Hanuman pays his respects.

Rama is one of the protagonists of the tale. Portrayed as the seventh avatar of the God Vishnu, he is the eldest and favorite son of the King of Ayodhya, Dasharatha, and his Queen Kausalya. He is portrayed as the epitome of virtue. Dasharatha is forced by Kaikeyi, one of his wives, to command Rama to relinquish his right to the throne for fourteen years and go into exile.

Rama and monkey chiefs

Sita is one of the protagonists and the beloved wife of Rama and the daughter of king Janaka. Rama went to Janakpurdham, current city of Janakpur, Nepal, and got a chance to marry her by lifting a heavy Bow in a competition organized by King Janaka. The competition was to find the most suitable husband for Sita and many princes from different states competed to win her. Sita is the avatar of Goddess Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu. Sita is portrayed as the epitome of female purity and virtue. She follows her husband into exile and is abducted by Ravana. She is imprisoned on the island of Lanka until Rama rescues her by defeating the demon king Ravana. Later, she gives birth to Lava and Kusha, the heirs of Rama.
Hanuman is the tritagonist and a vanara belonging to the kingdom of Kishkindha. He is portrayed as the eleventh avatar of God Shiva (He is also called Rudra) and an ideal bhakta of Rama. He is born as the son of Kesari, a vanara king, and the Goddess Anjana. He plays an important part in locating Sita and in the ensuing battle.
Lakshmana, the younger brother of Rama, who chose to go into exile with him. He is the son of King Dasaratha and Queen Sumitra, and twin of Shatrughna. Lakshmana is portrayed as an avatar of the Shesha, the nāga associated with the God Vishnu. He spends his time protecting Sita and Rama during which he fought the demoness Surpanakha. He is forced to leave Sita, who was deceived by the demon Maricha into believing that Rama was in trouble. Sita is abducted by Ravana upon him leaving her. He was married to Sita's younger sister Urmila.He is believed to live until our modern world.
Ravana, a rakshasa, is the king of Lanka. After performing severe penance for ten thousand years he received a boon from the creator-God Brahma: he could henceforth not be killed by Gods, demons, or spirits. He is portrayed as a powerful demon king who disturbs the penances of Rishis. Vishnu incarnates as the human Rama to defeat him, thus circumventing the boon given by Brahma.
Jatayu, the son of Aruṇa and nephew of Garuda. A demi-god who has the form of a eagle that tries to rescue Sita from Ravana. Jatayu fought valiantly with Ravana, but as Jatayu was very old, Ravana soon got the better of him. As Rama and Lakshmana chanced upon the stricken and dying Jatayu in their search for Sita, he informs them the direction in which Ravana had gone.
Dasharatha is the king of Ayodhya and the father of Rama. He has three queens, Kausalya, Kaikeyi and Sumitra, and three other sons: Bharata, Lakshmana and Shatrughna. Kaikeyi, Dasharatha's favourite queen, forces him to make his son Bharata crown prince and send Rama into exile. Dasharatha dies heartbroken after Rama goes into exile.
Bharata is the son of Dasharatha and Queen Kaikeyi. When he learns that his mother Kaikeyi had forced Rama into exile and caused Dasharatha to die brokenhearted, he storms out of the palace and goes in search of Rama in the forest. When Rama refuses to return from his exile to assume the throne, Bharata obtains Rama's sandals, and places them on the throne as a gesture that Rama is the true king. Bharata then rules Ayodhya as the regent of Rama for the next fourteen years. He was married to Mandavi.
Satrughna is the son of Dasharatha and his third wife Queen Sumitra. He is the youngest brother of Rama and also the twin brother of Lakshmana. He was married to Shrutakirti.
Sugriva, a vanara king who helped Rama regain Sita from Ravana. He had an agreement with Rama through which Vaali - Sugriva’s brother and king of Kishkindha-would be killed by Rama in exchange for Sugriva’s help in finding Sita. Sugriva ultimately ascends the throne of Kishkindha after the slaying of Vaali, and fulfils his promise by putting the Vanara forces at Rama’s disposal^[26]
Indrajit, a son of Ravana who twice defeated Lakshmana in battle, before succumbing to him the third time. An adept of the magical arts, he coupled his supreme fighting skills with various stratagems to inflict heavy losses on the Vanara army before his death.^[26]
Kumbhakarna, a brother of Ravana, famous for his eating and sleeping. He would sleep for months at a time and would be extremely ravenous upon waking up, consuming anything set before him. His monstrous size and loyalty made him an important part of Ravana’s army. During the war, he decimated the Vanara army before Rama cut off his limbs and head.^[26]
Surpanakha, Ravana's demoness sister who fell in love with Rama, and had the magical power to take any form she wanted.
Vibhishana, a younger brother of Ravana. He was against the kidnapping of Sita, and joined the forces of Rama when Ravana refused to return her. His intricate knowledge of Lanka was vital in the war, and he was crowned king after the fall of Ravana.^[26]

[edit] Synopsis

The Epic is traditionally divided into several major kāṇḍas or books, that deal chronologically with the major events in the life of Rama—Bāla Kāṇḍa, Ayodhya Kāṇḍa, Araṇya Kāṇḍa, Kishkindha Kāṇḍa, Sundara Kāṇḍa, Yuddha Kāṇḍa, and Uttara Kāṇḍa.^[12] The Bala Kanda describes the birth of Rama, his childhood, and marriage to Sita.^[27] The Ayodhya Kanda describes the preparations for Rama's coronation, and his exile into the forest.^[27] The third part, Aranya Kanda, describes the forest life of Rama, and the kidnapping of Sita by the demon king Ravana.^[27] The fourth book, Kishkindha Kanda, describes the meeting of Hanuman with Rama, the destruction of the vanara king Bali, and the coronation of his younger brother Sugriva on the throne of the kingdom of Kishkindha.^[27] The fifth book is Sundara Kanda, which narrates the heroism of Hanuman, his flight to Lanka, and meeting with Sita.^[27] The sixth book, Yuddha Kanda, describes the battle between Rama's and Ravana's armies.^[27] The last book, Uttara Kanda, describes the birth of Lava and Kusha to Sita, their coronation on the throne of Ayodhya, and Rama's final departure from the world.^[27]

[edit] Bala Kanda

Main article: Balakanda

The birth of the four sons of Dasharatha

Dasharatha was the king of Ayodhya. He had three queens and they are Kausalya, Kaikeyi and Sumitra. He was childless for a long time and, anxious to produce an heir, he performs a fire sacrifice known as Putra-Kameshti Yagya.^[28] As a consequence, Rama is first born to Kausalya, Bharata is born to Kaikeyi, and Lakshmana and Shatrughna are born to Sumitra.^[29]^[30] These sons are endowed, to various degrees, with the essence of the God Vishnu; Vishnu had opted to be born into mortality in order to combat the demon Ravana, who was oppressing the Gods, and who could only be destroyed by a mortal.^[31] The boys are reared as the princes of the realm, receiving instructions from the scriptures and in warfare. When Rama is 16 years old, the sage Vishwamitra comes to the court of Dasharatha in search of help against demons, who were disturbing sacrificial rites. He chooses Rama, who is followed by Lakshmana, his constant companion throughout the story. Rama and Lakshmana receive instructions and supernatural weapons from Vishwamitra, and proceed to destroy the demons.^[32]

Janaka was the king of Mithila. One day, a female child was found in the field by the king in the deep furrow dug by his plough. Overwhelmed with joy, the king regarded the child as a "miraculous gift of God". The child was named Sita, the Sanskrit word for furrow.^[33] Sita grew up to be a girl of unparalleled beauty and charm. When Sita was of marriageable age, the king decided to have a swayamvara which included a contest. The king was in possession of an immensely heavy bow, presented to him by the God Shiva: whoever could wield the bow could marry Sita. The sage Vishwamitra attends the swayamvara with Rama and Lakshmana. Only Rama wields the bow and breaks it. Marriages are arranged between the sons of Dasharatha and daughters of Janaka. Rama gets married to Sita, Lakshmana to Urmila, Bharata to Mandavi and Shatrughan to Shrutakirti. The weddings are celebrated with great festivity at Mithila and the marriage party returns to Ayodhya.^[32]

[edit] Ayodhya Kanda

Bharata asks for Rama's paduka (footwear)

After Rama and Sita have been married for twelve years, an elderly Dasharatha expresses his desire to crown Rama, to which the Kosala assembly and his subjects express their support.^[34]^[35] On the eve of the great event, Kaikeyi—her jealousy aroused by Manthara, a wicked maidservant—claims two boons that Dasharatha had long ago granted her. Kaikeyi demands Rama to be exiled into wilderness for fourteen years, while the succession passes to her son Bharata. The heartbroken king, constrained by his rigid devotion to his given word, accedes to Kaikeyi's demands.^[36] Rama accepts his father's reluctant decree with absolute submission and calm self-control which characterizes him throughout the story.^[37] He is joined by Sita and Lakshmana. When he asks Sita not to follow him, she says, "the forest where you dwell is Ayodhya for me and Ayodhya without you is a veritable hell for me."^[38] After Rama's departure, king Dasharatha, unable to bear the grief, passes away.^[39] Meanwhile, Bharata who was on a visit to his maternal uncle, learns about the events in Ayodhya. Bharata refuses to profit from his mother's wicked scheming and visits Rama in the forest. He requests Rama to return and rule. But Rama, determined to carry out his father's orders to the letter, refuses to return before the period of exile. However, Bharata carries Rama's sandals, and keeps them on the throne, while he rules as Rama's regent.^[36]^[39]

[edit] Aranya Kanda

Ravana fights Jatayu as he carries off the kidnapped Sita, painting by Raja Ravi Varma.

Rama, Sita and Lakshmana journeyed southward along the banks of river Godavari, where they built cottages and lived off the land. At the Panchavati forest they are visited by a rakshasa woman, Surpanakha, the sister of Ravana. She attempts to seduce the brothers and, failing in this, attempts to kill Sita. Lakshmana stops her by cutting off her nose and ears. Hearing of this, her demon brother, Khara, organizes an attack against the princes. Rama annihilates Khara and his demons.^[40]

When news of these events reaches Ravana, he resolves to destroy Rama by capturing Sita with the aid of the rakshasa Maricha. Maricha, assuming the form of a golden deer, captivates Sita's attention. Entranced by the beauty of the deer, Sita pleads with Rama to capture it. Lord Rama, aware that this is the play of the demons, is unable to dissuade Sita from her desire and chases the deer into the forest, leaving Sita under Lakshmana's guard. After some time Sita hears Rama calling out to her; afraid for his life she insists that Lakshmana rush to his aid. Lakshmana tries to assure her that Rama is invincible, and that it is best if he continues to follow Rama's orders to protect her. On the verge of hysterics Sita insists that it is not she but Rama who needs Lakshmana's help. He obeys her wish but stipulates that she is not to leave the cottage or entertain any strangers. He draws a chalk outline, the Lakshmana rekha around the cottage and casts a spell on it that prevents anyone from entering the boundary but allows people to exit. Finally with the coast clear, Ravana appears in the guise of an ascetic requesting Sita's hospitality. Unaware of the devious plan of her guest, Sita is tricked into leaving the rekha and then forcibly carried away by the evil Ravana.^[40]^[41]

Jatayu, a vulture, tries to rescue Sita, but is mortally wounded. At Lanka, Sita is kept under the heavy guard of rakshasis. Ravana demands Sita marry him, but Sita, eternally devoted to Rama, refuses.^[39] Rama and Lakshmana learn about Sita's abduction from Jatayu, and immediately set out to save her.^[42] During their search, they meet the demon Kabandha and the ascetic Shabari, who direct them towards Sugriva and Hanuman.^[43]^[44]

[edit] Kishkindha Kanda

A stone bas relief at Banteay Srei in Cambodia depicts the combat between Bali and Sugriva (middle). To the right, Rama fires his bow. To the left, Vali lies dying.

Ravana is meeting Sita at Ashokavana. Hanuman is seen on the tree.

The Kishkindha Kanda is set in the monkey citadel Kishkindha. Rama and Lakshmana meet Hanuman, the greatest of monkey heroes and an adherent of Sugriva, the banished pretender to the throne of Kishkindha.^[45] Rama befriends Sugriva and helps him by killing his elder brother Vali thus regaining the kingdom of Kiskindha, in exchange for helping Rama to recover Sita.^[46] However Sugriva soon forgets his promise and spends his time in debauchery. The clever monkey Queen, Tara, aunt of Sugriva, calmly intervenes to prevent an enraged Lakshmana from destroying the monkey citadel. She then eloquently convinces Sugriva to honor his pledge. Sugriva then sends search parties to the four corners of the earth, only to return without success from north, east and west.^[47] The southern search party under the leadership of Angad and Hanuman learns from a vulture named Sampati that Sita was taken to Lanka.^[47]^[48]

[edit] Sundara Kanda

Main article: Sundara Kanda

The Sundara Kanda forms the heart of Valmiki's Ramayana^[49] and consists of a detailed, vivid account of Hanuman's adventures.^[45] After learning about Sita, Hanuman assumes a gargantuan form and makes a colossal leap across the ocean to Lanka. Here, Hanuman explores the demon's city and spies on Ravana. He locates Sita in Ashoka grove, who is wooed and threatened by Ravana and his rakshasis to marry Ravana. He reassures her, giving Rama's signet ring as a sign of good faith. He offers to carry Sita back to Rama, however she refuses, reluctant to allow herself to be touched by a male other than her husband. She says that Rama himself must come and avenge the insult of her abduction.^[45]

Hanuman then wreaks havoc in Lanka by destroying trees and buildings, and killing Ravana's warriors. He allows himself to be captured and produced before Ravana. He gives a bold lecture to Ravana to release Sita. He is condemned and his tail is set on fire, but he escapes his bonds and, leaping from roof to roof, sets fire to Ravana's citadel and makes the giant leap back from the island. The joyous search party returns to Kishkindha with the news.^[45]^[50]

[edit] Lanka Kanda

The War of Lanka by Sahibdin.It depicts the monkey army of the protagonist Rama (top left, blue figure) fighting the demon-king of the king of Lanka, Ravana in order to save Rama's kidnapped wife Sita. The painting depicts multiple events in the battle against the three-headed demon general Trisiras, in bottom left – Trisiras is beheaded by the monkey-companion of Rama – Hanuman.

This book describes the battle between the army of Rama constructed with the help of Sugriv and Ravana. Having received Hanuman's report on Sita, Rama and Lakshmana proceed with their allies towards the shore of the southern sea. There they are joined by Ravana's renegade brother Vibhishana. The monkeys named "Nal" and "Neel" construct a floating bridge (known as Rama Setu) across the ocean, and the princes and their army cross over to Lanka. A lengthy battle ensues and Rama kills Ravana. Rama then installs Vibhishana on the throne of Lanka.^[51]

On meeting Sita, Rama asks her to undergo agni pariksha (test of fire) to prove her purity, since she had stayed at the demon's palace. When Sita plunges into the sacrificial fire, Agni the lord of fire raises Sita, unharmed, to the throne, attesting to her purity.^[52] The episode of agni pariksha varies in the versions of Ramayana by Valmiki and Tulsidas.^[53] The above version is from Valmiki Ramayana. In Tulsidas's Ramacharitamanas Sita was under the protection of Agni so it was necessary to bring her out before reuniting with Rama. At the expiration of his term of exile, Rama returns to Ayodhya with Sita and Lakshmana, where the coronation is performed.^[51] This is the beginning of Ram Rajya, which implies an ideal state with good morals.

[edit] Uttara Kanda

Sita in the Hermitage of Valmiki

The Uttara Kanda is regarded to be a later addition to the original story by Valmiki.^[12] and concerns the final years of Rama, Sita, and Rama's brothers. After being crowned king, many years passed pleasantly with Sita. However, despite the Agni Pariksha (fire ordeal) of Sita, rumours about her purity are spreading among the populace of Ayodhya.^[54] Rama yields to public opinion and banishes Sita to the forest, where sage Valmiki provides shelter in his ashrama (hermitage). Here she gives birth to twin boys, Lava and Kusha, who became pupils of Valmiki and are brought up in ignorance of their identity.

Valmiki composes the Ramayana and teaches Lava and Kusha to sing it. Later, Rama holds a ceremony during Ashwamedha yagna, which the sage Valmiki, with Lava and Kusha, attends. Lava and Kusha sing the Ramayana in the presence of Rama and his vast audience. When Lava and Kusha recite about Sita's exile, Rama becomes grievous, and Valmiki produces Sita. Sita calls upon the Earth, her mother, to receive her and as the ground opens, she vanishes into it.^[54]^[55] Rama then learns that Lava and Kusha are his children. Later a messenger from the Gods appears and informs Rama that the mission of his incarnation was over. Rama returns to his celestial abode.^[52]

Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita (pronounced: [ˈbʱəɡəʋəd̪ ɡiːˈt̪aː] ( listen)), also referred to as Gita, is a 700-verse Hindu scripture that is part of the ancient Sanskrit epic Mahabharata. Due to its presence in the epic, it is classified as a Smṛiti text. However, those branches of Hinduism that give it the status of an Upanishad also consider it a Śruti or "revealed text".^[1]^[2] As it is taken to represent a summary of the Upanishadic teachings, it is also called "the Upanishad of the Upanishads."^[3]

The context of the Gita is a conversation between Krishna and the Pandava prince Arjuna taking place in the middle of the battlefield before the start of the Kurukshetra War with armies on both sides ready to battle. Responding to Arjuna's confusion and moral dilemma about fighting his own cousins who command a tyranny imposed on a disputed empire, Lord Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and prince, and elaborates on yoga, Samkhya, reincarnation, moksha, karma yoga and jnana yoga among other topics.^[4]

Gītā Dhyānam: (contains 9 verses) The Gītā Dhyānam is not a part of the main Bhagavad-Gītā, but it is commonly published with the Gītā as a prefix. The verses of the Gītā Dhyānam (also called Gītā Dhyāna or Dhyāna Ślokas) offer salutations to a variety of sacred scriptures, figures, and entities, characterize the relationship of the Gītā to the Upanishads, and affirm the power of divine assistance.^[21] It is a common practice to recite these before reading chapter(s) of the Gita itself.^[22]^[23]

1. Arjuna-Visada Yoga: (contains 47 verses) Arjuna requests Krishna to move his chariot between the two armies. When Arjuna sees his relatives on the opposing army side of the Kurus, he loses morale and decides not to fight.

2. Sankhya Yoga: : (contains 72 verses) After asking Krishna for help, Arjuna is instructed that only the body may be killed, as he was worried if it would become a sin to kill people (including his gurus and relatives), while the eternal self is immortal. Krishna appeals to Arjuna that, as a warrior, he has a duty to uphold the path of dharma through warfare. Krishna told Arjuna the three principles dharma, Atman and the Sharira (body).

3. Karma Yoga: (contains 43 verses) Arjuna asks why he should engage in fighting if knowledge is more important than action. Krishna stresses to Arjuna that performing his duties for the greater good, but without attachment to results, is the appropriate course of action.

4. Jnana-Karma-Sanyasa Yoga: (contains 42 verses) Krishna reveals that he has lived through many births, always teaching Yoga for the protection of the pious and the destruction of the impious and stresses the importance of accepting a guru.

5. Karma-Sanyasa Yoga: (contains 29 verses) Arjuna asks Krishna if it is better to forgo action or to act ("renunciation or discipline of action"^[24]). Krishna answers that both ways may be beneficent, but that acting in Karma Yoga is superior.

6. Dhyan Yoga or Atmasanyam Yoga: (contains 46 verses) Krishna describes the correct posture for meditation and the process of how to achieve Samādhi.

7. Jnana-Vijnana Yoga: (contains 30 verses) Krishna teaches the path of knowledge Jnana Yoga).

8. Aksara-Brahma Yoga: (contains 28 verses) Krishna defines the terms brahman, adhyatma, karma, atman, adhibhuta and adhidaiva and explains how one can remember him at the time of death and attain his supreme abode.

9. Raja-Vidya-Raja-Guhya Yoga: (contains 34 verses) Krishna explains panentheism, "all beings are in me" as a way of remembering him in all circumstances.

10.Vibhuti-Vistara-Yoga: (contains 42 verses) Krishna describes how he is the ultimate source of all material and spiritual worlds. Arjuna accepts Krishna as the Supreme Being, quoting great sages who have also done so.

11.Visvarupa-Darsana Yoga: (contains 55 verses) On Arjuna's request, Krishna displays his "universal form" (Viśvarūpa), a theophany of a being facing every way and emitting the radiance of a thousand suns, containing all other beings and material in existence.

12.Bhakti Yoga: (contains 20 verses) In this chapter Krishna extols the glory of devotion to God. Krishna describes the process of devotional service (Bhakti Yoga). He also explains different forms of spirtual disciplines.

13.Ksetra-Ksetrajna Vibhaga Yoga: (contains 34 verses) In this chapter Krishna describes the (human) body as Kshetra, and tells one who knows this fact is a Ksetrajna. Krishna describes nature (prakrti), the enjoyer (purusha) and consciousness.

14.Gunatraya-Vibhaga Yoga: (contains 27 verses) Krishna explains the three modes (gunas) of material nature.

15.Purusottama Yoga: (contains 20 verses) Krishna describes a symbolic tree (representing material existence), its roots in the heavens and its foliage on earth. Krishna explains that this tree should be felled with the "axe of detachment", after which one can go beyond to his supreme abode.

16.Daivasura-Sampad-Vibhaga Yoga: (contains 24 verses) Krishna tells of the human traits of the divine and the demonic natures. He counsels that to attain the supreme destination one must give up lust, anger and greed, discern between right and wrong action by discernment through Buddhi and evidence from scripture and thus act correctly.

17.Sraddhatraya-Vibhaga Yoga: (contains 28 verses) Krishna tells of three divisions of faith and the thoughts, deeds and even eating habits corresponding to the three gunas.

18.Moksha-Sanyasa Yoga: (contains 78 verses) In conclusion, Krishna asks Arjuna to abandon all forms of dharma and simply surrender unto him. He describes this as the ultimate perfection of life.

[edit] Major themes of yoga

The influential commentator Madhusudana Sarasvati (b. circa 1490) divided the Gita's eighteen chapters into three sections, each of six chapters. According to his method of division, the first six chapters deal with Karma yoga, which is the means to the final goal, and the last six deal with the goal itself, which he says is Knowledge (Jnana). The middle six deal with bhakti.^[25] Swami Gambhirananda characterizes Madhusudana Sarasvati's system as a successive approach in which Karma yoga leads to Bhakti yoga, which in turn leads to Jnana yoga.^[26]

Institution of marriage in hindu weddings

Vivāha (Sanskrit) or Vivaah (Hindi: विवाह) is a word for marriage in South Asia. The word is also used to describe a marriage as per Vedic traditions.^[1] Under Vedic Hindu traditions marriage is viewed as one of the saṁskāras (sacraments), which is a lifelong commitment of one wife and one husband.^[2] In India marriage has been looked upon as having been made in heaven and considered as a ‘’divine knot sanctified by fire‘’.^[3] Hindu families are patrilocal.

The Hindu wedding ceremony may vary in minor details from region to region and different priests may adopt some variations.

According to Hinduism, marriage is a union between a male and a female with a commitment to pursue Dharma, Artha (possessions), Kama (physical and other desires) and Moksha (the liberation) together. It joins two families. It is at once a gateway to earthly life of pleasure, progress, prosperity and joy as it is also an altar of elevation to a level of spiritual experience. Society recognizes and controls it as it results in the procreation and nurture of the future generation and thereby influences the social and cultural growth of society. According to Manusmriti, or laws of Manu, there are eight different types of Hindu marriages. Not all eight have religious sanction. The last four were not religiously defined and were condemned. These are: Brahma Marriage, Daiva Marriage, Arsha Marriage, Prajapatya Marriage, Gandharva Marriage, Asura Marriage, Rakshasa Marriage, Paishacha Marriage.

Type of marriage

Eight different types of Vivāha have been documented in the ancient Indian scripture Manu Smrti III.20-34.^[4] These eight types of marriages are:^[5]^[6]^[7]

1. Brahma Vivaha: In Brahma marriage once the boy completes his Brahmacharya Ashram (student hood), he is eligible to get married. His parents then approach the parents or guardian of a girl belonging to a good family and same Varna and ask them for the hand of their daughter for their son. The father of the girl also carefully chooses the groom who is well versed in Vedas and of a noble character. This is how a Brahma marriage was arranged. There was no dowry system at that time; a girl came with two garments and a few ornaments only. According to Dharmashastras, "Brahma Vivah" is the best marriage among all.

2. Daiva Vivaha: If the girl is groomed with ornaments and married to a priest during a sacrifice, it is called Daiva Vivah. In this type of marriage the girl's family wait for a reasonable period for a suitable man for their daughter but when nobody turns up they go looking for a groom in such places where a sacrifice is being conducted. According to the Dharmashastra, Daiva marriage is considered inferior to Brahma marriage because it is considered degrading for the womanhood to look for groom.

3. Arsha Vivaha: In this type of marriage the bridegroom gives a cow and a pair of bull to the guardian of girl. Marriages of this type used to happen because the parents of the bride couldn't afford the expense of their daughter's marriage at the right time according to the brahma rite. So the girl is married off to an old sage. The cows, which were taken in exchange of the bride shows that even the groom does not have any remarkable qualities. According to sastras noble marriages had no monetary or business transactions so this kind of marriages were not considered noble.

4. Prajapatya Vivaha: In this type of marriage, the bride's father goes in search for a groom for his daughter. The protection of the bride or daughter is handed over by the father to the bridegroom during the Panigrahan ceremony or the acceptance of the bride's hands. The actual wedding ceremony takes place after Panigrahan.

5. Gandharva Vivaha: However when a man and a woman marry with each others consent but may not have the consent of their family then this wedding is called Gandharva Vivah or 'love marriage'.

6. Asura Vivaha: In the Asura type of marriage the groom is not at all suitable for the bride . In no way is he a match for the girl but willingly gives as much wealth as he can afford to the bride's parents and relatives. In Arsha type cows are given in exchange for the bride but there is no compulsion like the Asura type. Even the groom is also not so rich and powerful like his counterpart in Asura type.

7. Rakshasa Vivaha: In the case where the bride is willing however, the family of the bride are not, the bride is forcefully taken from the family. A famous example is Krishna (Avatar of Visnu)takes Rukmini (Avatar of Lakshmi)

8. Paishacha Vivaha: In the case where the bride is intoxicated, possessed or not in a conscious state of mind when being married and thus is married unwillingly, is an example Paishacha vivaha, which has been outlawed by Manu

Sanskara (Vivaha as a sacrament)

Sacraments constitute an important part of Hindu religion. Sacraments in Hinduism are designed to build a solid foundation for righteous living. They are known as ‘Sanskaras’.Their purpose is to create and develop a religious and spiritual outlook in life. The Hindu religion has instituted sixteen different Sanskaras (sacraments) meant for different phases of life from conception to marriage to old age and death. The word sanskara in Sanskrit means ‘to cause indelible impressions on the mind and to develop every aspect of one’s personality.’ Therefore it is necessary to understand and appreciate their significance and to derive benefit from their performance. Of the sixteen sanskaras in Hinduism, the sacrament of marriage or Vivah Sanskara is the most important. Marriage influences the personality of man and woman as life partners, enabling them to take their rightful place in society.

Steps

Vaak Daanam

This step is a part of Kanya Varanam, where the groom-to-be (brahmachari) sends two elders on his behalf to the father of a girl whom he wishes to marry. The elders convey the message of the brahmachari and ask for the daughter's hand. The two mantras in the form of brahmachari's appeal to intercede on his behalf come from Rg 10.32.1 ("pra sugmantha...") and 10.85.23. The first mantra begs the elders to proceed and return quickly with success back from their mission on his behalf. The second mantram ("anruksharaa Rjava:...") asks for the gods' blessings for the elders' safe journey to the house of the father of the would-be-bride. The mantra prays to Aryama and Bhaga for a marriage full of harmony. The father accedes to the request of the elders and the resulting agreement for betrothal is known as vaak daanam.

Kanyaa Daanam

Here, the brahmachari meets his prospective father-in-law. As soon as the bridegroom’s party arrives, they are warmly welcomed by the bride's parents, relatives and friends. At the entrance of the hall, the threshold ceremony is performed. The officiating priest chants a few mantras of blessings and welcome. The threshold ceremony requires the bride’s mother to receive and bless the groom with rice, red turmeric powder (kumkum) etc., by applying tilak (red dot and uncooked rice) on the groom’s forehead. She sprinkles rice and red turmeric powder on the groom, and then blesses him with the palms of both hands - stretching them close to the groom’s head. Now the priest and the bride’s parents lead the bridegroom and his parents to the stage where they are given appropriate seats. All the other guests take their seats in the hall to witness the marriage ceremony.

To the accompaniment of ceremonial mantras by the officiating priest the bride’s parents welcome the groom by invoking the God’s blessings and then offering the bridegroom a nutritious drink called Madhuparka. This is called the Madhuparka Ceremony, the origin of which dates back thousands of years when Rishis and sages of India used it as a way of welcoming guests.

Vara Prekshanam

In this ritual, the bridegroom and the bride look at each other formally for the first time. The bridegroom worries about any doshas (defects) that the bride might have and prays to the gods Varuna, Brihaspati, Indra and Surya to remove every defect and to make her fit for harmonious and long marriage life blessed with progeny and happiness (mantra: Rg 10.85.44). The bride groom recites the mantra and wipes the eyebrows of the bride with a blade of darbha grass, to symbolize the removal of defects. The darbha grass is thrown behind the bride at the conclusion of this ceremony. The Bridegroom shall stand facing the east. The Bride shall stand facing the north. The bride (offering the seat or Asana, shall address the bridegroom as follows:

The bride: AUM, The noble one may accept and take the seat.
The bridegroom: AUM, I am taking my seat. (ॐ प्रातिग्रहनामी)

The bride shall take her seat to the right of the bridegroom. The bridegroom performs the Achamana and Angasparsha with water.

All Hindu religious ceremonies begin with two observances, namely Achaman or sipping a small quantity of water and angasparsha or touching one’s limbs with one’s right hand middle two fingers with a little water. Achaman is purificatory and conducive to peaceful attitude of mind. Angasparsha is intended to pray for physical strength and alertness. Achaman and Angasparsha are performed with the aid of Mantras.

Madhuparka ceremony
Holding with his left hand a cup of Madhuparka (composed of honey, curd and ghee or clarified butter), after removing the cover and looking at the Madhuparka,

The bridegroom says:

May the breeze be sweet as honey; may the streams flow full of honey and may the herbs and plants be laden with honey for us! May the nights be honey-sweet for us; may the mornings be honey-sweet for us and may the heavens be honey-sweet for us! May the plants be honey-sweet for us; may the sun be all honey for us and may the cows yield us honey-sweet milk!

"Honey-sweet", in this case, means pleasant, advantageous, and conducive to happiness. The bridegroom shall pour out the Madhuparka into three cups and then partake a little of it from each of the cups reciting the following Mantra:

The bridegroom: The honey is the sweetest and the best. May I have food as sweet and health-giving as this honey and may I be able to relish it!

Presentation of a ceremonial cow

The bride's father symbolically offers to the bridegroom a cow as a present. In olden times sons-in-law received real cows as gifts, since that was the most precious asset with which a newly wedded couple could start life. This part of the tradition has been preserved by a symbolical presentation. At the conclusion of the first part of the wedding ceremony, it is customary to present gifts to the bride. The bridegroom presents the bride with gifts of clothing and jewellery thereby acknowledging his life-long duty to provide her with the necessities of life.

The father of the bride, offering to the bridegroom the present of a cow, a finger-ring or some other suitable article says:

The father of the bride: AUM, (Please) accept these presents.
The bridegroom: AUM, I accept (these presents).

Mangala Snaanam and the wearing of the wedding clothes by the bride

Five Veda mantras are recited to sanctify the bride in preparation for the subsequent stages of the marriage. This aspect of the marriage is known as mangala snanam. The sun god (Surya), water god (Varuna), and other gods are invoked to purify the bride in preparation for a harmonious married life. Next, the bride wears the marriage clothes to the accompaniment of additional Veda mantras. The bridegroom then ties a darbha rope around the waist of the bride and leads her to the place, where the sacred fire is located for conducting the rest of the marriage ceremony. The bride and the groom sit on a new mat in front of the fire. The groom recites three mantras which invoke Soma, Gandharva and Agni to confer strength, beauty, and youth on the bride.

Maangalya Dhaaranam

There is no Veda Mantram for tying the mangala sutram (auspicious thread) around the neck of the bride by the groom. The latter takes the mangala sutram in his hands and recites the following verse:

mAngalyam tantunAnena mama jIvanA hethunA |
kaNThe: badhnami subhage! sanjIva Sarada: Satam ||
This is a sacred thread. This is essential for my long life. I tie this around your neck, O maiden having many auspicious attributes! May you live happily for a hundred years (with me).

Paani Grahanam
After maangalya dhaaranam, the groom lowers his right palm and encloses it over the right hand of the bride. He covers all the five fingers of the right hand of the bride with his right palm through this act of paani grahanam. He recites mantras in praise of Bhaga, Aryama, Savita, Indra, Agni, Suryan, Vayu and Saraswati, while holding the bride's hand. He prays for long life, progeny, prosperity and harmony with the bride during their married life. The closed fingers of the right hand of the bride is said to represent her heart. The paani grahanam ritual symbolizes the bride surrendering her heart in the hands of the groom during the occasion of the marriage.

Sapta Padi
Main article: Saptapadi
During this ritual, the groom walks with the bride to the right side of the sacred fire. All along, he holds his wife's right hand in his right hand in the way in which he held her hand during the paani grahanam ceremony. He stops, bends down and holds the right toe of his wife with his right hand and helps her take seven steps around the fire. At the beginning of each step, he recites a Veda mantra to invoke the blessings of Maha Vishnu. Through these seven mantras, he asks Maha Vishnu to follow in the footsteps of his wife and bless her with food, strength, piety, progeny, wealth, comfort and health. At the conclusion of the seven steps, he addresses his wife with a moving statement from the Veds summarized below: Dear Wife! By taking these seven steps, you have become my dearest friend. I pledge my unfailing loyalty to you. Let us stay together for the rest of our lives. Let us not separate from each other ever. Let us be of one mind in carrying out our responsibilities as householders (grihasthas). Let us love and cherish each other and enjoy nourishing food and good health. Let us discharge our prescribed Vedic duties to our elders, ancestors, rishis, creatures, and gods. Let our aspirations be united. I will be the Saaman and may you be the Rk (Saaman here refers to the music and Rk refers to the Vedic text that is being cast into music). Let me be the upper world and let you be the Bhumi or Mother Earth. I will be the Sukla or life force and may you be the bearer of that Sukla. Let me be the mind and let you be the speech. May you follow me to conceive children and gain worldly as well as spiritual wealth. May all auspiciousness come your way. This series of Veda mantras starting with "sakhaa saptapadhaa bhava ..." and ending with "pumse putraaya ..." are rich with meaning and imagery.

Pradhaana Homam or Jayadi Homamam

After sapta padi, the couple take their seat on the western side of the sacred fire and conduct pradhaana homam. During the conductance of this homam, the bride must place her right hand on her husband's body so that she gets the full benefit of the homam through symbolic participation. Sixteen mantras are recited to the accompaniment of pouring a spoon of clarified butter into the sacred fire at the end of recitation of each of the mantras. These mantras salute Soma, Gandharva, Agni, Indra, Vayu, the Aswini Devas, Savita, Brihaspati, Viswa Devas and Varuna for blessing the marriage and beseeches them to confer long wedded life, health, wealth, children and freedom from all kinds of worries. One prayer—the sixth mantra—has a sense of humor and provides deep insight into human psychology. The text of this mantra is: "daSaasyam putraan dehi, patim ekaadaSam kRti". Here, the groom asks Indra to bless the couple with ten children and requests that he be blessed to become the eleventh child of his bride in his old age.

Ashmarohanam (stepping on the grinding stone)

After pradhaana homam, the husband holds the right toe of his wife and lifts her leg and places it on a flat granite grinding stone known as "ammi" in Tamil. The ammi stands at the right side of the sacred fire. The husband recites a Veda mantra when he places the right foot of his wife on the ammi: May you stand on this firm stone. May you be rock-firm during your stay on this grinding stone. May you stand up to those who oppose you while you carry out your time-honored responsibilities as a wife sanctioned by the Vedas and tradition. May you develop tolerance to your enemies and put up a fair fight to defend your legitimate rights as the head of the household in a firm manner, equal to the steady strength of this grinding stone.Some trditions mention to wear two silver ring on the either toes of bride by the bridegroom at this time.

Laaja Homam

After ammi stepping, a ceremony of doing homam with parched rice(laja) is conducted. Here, the wife cups her hands and the brothers of the bride fill the cupped hands with parched rice. The husband adds a drop of ghee to the parched rice and recites five Veda mantras. At the end of each of the recitation, the parched rice is thrown into the sacred fire as havis (offering) to Agni. Through these mantras, the wife prays for long life for her husband and for a marriage filled with peace and harmony. At the end of the laaja homam, the husband unties the darbha belt around the waist of his wife with another mantra. The husband states through this mantra that he unites his wife and ties her now with the bonds of Varuna and invites her to be a full partner in his life to enjoy the blessings of wedded life.

Griha Pravesam

This ceremony relates to the journey of the wife to her husband's home. The husband carries the sacred fire (homa agni) in a earthenware vessel during this journey home. There are many Veda mantras associated with this journey. These mantras pray to the appropriate Vedic gods to remove all obstacles that one can experience in a journey. The bride is requested to become the mistress of the house and is reminded of her important role among the relatives of her husband. After reaching her new home, she puts her right foot first in the house and recites the following Veda mantra:
I enter this house with a happy heart. May I give birth to children, who observe the path of righteousness (dharma)! May this house that I enter today be prosperous forever and never be deficient in food. May this house be populated by people of virtue and pious thoughts.

Praavisya Homam
After griha pravesam, a fire ritual known as praavisya homam is performed by the couple to the accompaniment of thirteen Veda mantras from the Rg Veda. Jayaadi homam is also part of the praavisya homam. This homam offers the salutation of the newly married couple to Agni Deva and asks for strength and nourishment to discharge the duties of a grihasthas for the next one hundred years. After that, the bride shifts her position from the right side of her husband to his left side. At that time, once again, she recites a Veda mantra invoking the gods for blessings of children and wealth to perform the duties of a householder. At the end of the above homam, a child is placed on the lap of the bride and she offers a fruit to the child, while reciting a prescribed Veda mantra. Yet another mantram asks the assembled guests to bless the bride and then retire to their own individual homes peacefully. During the first evening of the stay in her new home, the couple see the stars known as Dhruva (pole star) and Arundhati. The husband points out the pole star and prays for the strength and stability of the household through a Veda mantra. Next, the husband points out the Arundhati star to his wife and describes to her the story of Arundhati and her legendary chastity.

The rich and meaningful ceremony of the Hindu marriage (Kalyana Mahotsavam of the temples) is thus carried out in concert with sacred Veda Mantras. The bride and bridegroom should enunciate clearly the Veda mantras and reflect on their meanings during the different stages of the marriage ceremony. This way, they can be sure of a long, happy and prosperous married life and play their appropriate role in society to the fullest extent. Srinivasa Kalyanam is performed in the temples to remind us of these hoary Vedic traditions behind a Hindu marriage.

lokA: samastA: sukhino bhavantu sarva mangaLaani santu

Nishekam

It is the samskara which is done before the couple enter to their bedroom.Nishekam means first conjugal bliss by the couple. In South India they do Nishekam after the praavisya homam. Whereas in North India and East India they do it on the fourth day from the marriage. Paraskara Grihya Sutram of Shukla Yajurveda mentions to conduct it on the fourth night in the prescribed room of the couple. Its otherwise called Chaturthi Karma.

Kanya Daan (giving away of the bride)

Main article: Kanyadan
Kanya means daughter or girl. Daan means giving away. This is an important part of the marriage ceremony in which the bride’s parents give her away to the groom by entrusting her to the bridegroom. The officiating priest chants appropriate verses in Sanskrit. The people in the audience (the public) are now notified that the parents have willingly expressed their wish and consent by requesting the groom to accept their daughter as his bride. As soon as the groom indicates his acceptance the bride’s parents place their daughter’s right hand into the bridegroom’s right hand. The parents now bestow their blessings on both the bride and the groom and pray to the Lord to shower His choicest blessings on them.

The father of the bride, placing her right hand on the right hand of the bridegroom, says:

The father of the bride: Be pleased to accept hand of my daughter (name of the bride) of the Gotra (here the surname of the family). The bridegroom: AUM, I do accept.

The bridegroom makes an Offering of the garment and the scarf to the bride to wear. The bridegroom wears the garments and the scarf offered by the parents of the bride. Then facing each other The bride and the bridegroom speak as follows:

Ye learned people assembled at this sacred ceremony know it for certain that we two hereby accept each other as companions for life and agree to live together most cordially as husband and wife. May the hearts of us both be blended and beat in unison. May we love each other like the very breath of our lives. As the all-pervading God sustains the universe, so may we sustain each other. As a preceptor loves his disciple, so may we love each other steadfastly and faithfully. - RigVeda X.85.47

Addressing the bride, the bridegroom says:

Distant though we were, one from the other, we stand now united. May we be of one mind and spirit! Through the grace of God, may the eyes radiate benevolence. Be thou my shield. May thou have a cheerful heart and a smiling face. May thou be a true devotee of God and mother of heroes. May thou have at heart the welfare of all living beings! - Rig Veda X.85.44

The bride:

I pray that henceforth I may follow thy path. May my body be free from disease and defect and may I ever enjoy the bliss of your companionship!

[edit] Vivah Homa (sacred fire ceremony)

A yagya during a Hindu wedding

Vivah-homa is also called the "sacred fire ceremony". All solemn rites and ceremonies commence with the performance of Homa (sacred fire ceremony) among the followers of Vedic religion. The idea is to begin all auspicious undertakings in an atmosphere of purity and spirituality. This atmosphere is created by the burning of fragrant herbs and ghee and by the recitation of suitable Mantras.

The Achaman and Angasparsha are performed for the second time. The bride also participates.

The three Achaman mantras involve sipping of a little water three times.

The seven Angasparsha mantras involve touching water with the right hand middle two fingers apply the water to various limbs first to the right side and then the left side as follows:

1. Mouth

2.    Nostrils

3.    Eyes

4.    Ears

5. Arms

6. Thighs

7. Sprinkling water all over the body.

Pani Grahanam (acceptance of the hand)

The bridegroom rising from his seat and facing the bride, shall raise her right hand with his left hand and then clasping it says:

I clasp thy hand and enter into the holy state of matrimony so that we may be blessed with prosperity and noble progeny. Mayst thou live with me happily throughout life! Through the grace of the all-mighty Lord, who is the Creator and Sustainer of the universe and in the presence of this august assemblage, thou art being given away in marriage so that we may together rightly perform our duties as householders. With all my strength and resources, I have clasped thy hand; and thus united, we shall together follow the path of virtue. Thou art my lawfully wedded wife and I am thy lawfully wedded husband. God, the protector and sustainer of all, has given thee to me. From today, it devolves upon me to protect and maintain thee. Blessed with children, mayst thou live happily with me as thy husband for the full span of human life (a hundred years). Following the divine law and the words of wisdom uttered by the sages, may we make a good couple and may God vouchsafe unto us a shining life of virtue and happiness. As God nourishes and sustains all creatures through His great forces like the sun, the moon, the earth, the air etc., so may He bless my wife with healthy and virtuous progeny and may you all assembled here bless her!

·        I accept thee as my partner for life.
·        I will not keep away even mentally anything from thee.
·        I will share with thee all I enjoy.
  ·       We will persevere in the path of virtue, surmounting all obstacles.

] Pratigna Karanam (solemn vows)

The bridegroom taking the palm of the bride into his hand helps her to rise and then they both shall walk round the altar, the bride leading. Then facing the east take the solemn vows:

The bridegroom: <bloc

Ashmarohanam or Shilarohanam (stepping on the stone)

This ceremony is referred to as Ashmarohanam or Shilarohanam (Ashma or Shila: stone ; Arohan: stepping upon). In it, the mother of the bride assists her to step onto a stone and counsels her to prepare herself for a new life. The stone signifies strength and trust. A married couple is likely to encounter ups and downs, joys and sorrows, prosperity and adversity, sickness and health. In spite of the difficulties facing them, they are enjoined to remain steadfast and true to each other.

The bride places her right foot on the slab (stone), assisted by her mother or her brother. The priest recites a Mantra from the Atharva Veda (AV II.13.4)

Laja Homah (fried-rice offerings)

Laja means parched rice or barley like popcorn. The bride shall place the palms of her hands over those of the bridegroom and make three offerings (ahutis) of parched rice soaked in ghee (clarified butter).

The bride:

·        I adore God, the unifier of hearts. Now that I am leaving my parents’ home for my husband’s, I pray that He may keep us perpetually united!

·        With these offerings I pray for Long life for my husband and for the prosperity of all our relations!

·        (Addressing her husband) In making these offerings for your prosperity I once again pray that God may bless this union of our hearts!

Parikrama, Pradakshina, or Mangal Phera (circumambulation of the sacred fire)

Main article: Pradakshina
This is an auspicious and important part of the marriage ceremony. It consists in walking around the sacred fire (clockwise) four times. This aspect of the ceremony and the one that follows, namely Saptapadi (seven steps)- constitute the most important part, in as much as it legalises the marriage according to Hindu custom and tradition. These two aspects of the marriage ceremony establish an indissoluble matrimonial bond between the couple.

In the first three rounds the bridegroom leads the bride as they circle together around the sacred fire. In the fourth (last) round, the bride leads the bridegroom around the sacred fire.

In each round around the sacred fire, an appropriate mantra is recited which expresses noble sentiments in relation to their future matrimonial life. Each round culminates in both the bride and the bridegroom placing offerings or ahutis of fried rice in the sacred fire. The Hindu religion emphasises enjoyment of life as well as the discharging of family, social and national responsibilities.

During the first three rounds, God’s blessings and help are sought; loyalty to each other is emphasised and; a promise to keep in mind the well-being and care of the future children is made.

In the fourth (last) round (led by the bride) the bride promises that she will lead her life according to the tenets of the Hindu religion, namely Satya and Dharma or Truth and devotion to duty, and that she will always ensure that the bridegroom can rely on her to carry out her family, religious and household duties.

The bridegroom then places his hand on the bride’s head and states that henceforth she will be his wife and he will shield her against any danger or harm.

At the end of the four rounds they shall exchange seats, the bride taking her seat to the left of the bridegroom.

Saptapadi (seven steps)

Saptapadi

Besides a religious meaning behind the seven steps, there is also a mathematical rationale on performing the 7 rounds circling the fire. A circle is 360 degrees, all the numbers from 1 to 9 divides 360 except the number 7. It becomes a non-terminating number, hence symbolizing the marriage as indivisible.

The ends of their garments (the bridegroom’s scarf and upper garment of the bride) are tied together by the priest (signifying marriage knot).Then both shall stand facing the north. The bridegroom shall place his right hand upon the right shoulder of the bride.

They shall take the first step in the north easterly direction.

In taking these seven steps, the right foot shall always lead and the left foot be brought forward in line with it. Uncooked grains of rice (about a small handful) are placed in a line at equal distance at seven places. The bride and the groom take seven steps together, stepping upon first mound of rice with the right foot as the priest recites a mantra. Then stepping upon the second mount of rice with the right foot as the priest recites a mantra. (All seven steps are done the same way).

May the first step lead to food that is both nourishing and pure.

May the second step lead to strength (at the physical, emotional, intellectual and spiritual levels).
May the third step lead to prosperity.
May the fourth step lead to all round happiness.
May the fifth step lead to progeny (noble and virtuous children).
May the sixth step lead to long life.
May the seventh step lead to bondage (through harmony).

The bridegroom says:

Having completed the seven steps, be thou my lifelong companion. Mayst thou be my associate and helper in successful performance of the duties that now devolve upon me as a householder. May we be blessed with many children who may live the full duration of human life!

After the completion of the seven steps ceremony, the couple (with knots tied to each other) take their seats. The wife now takes her rightful place on the left side of her husband as the marriage is now religiously solemnized in its entirety. Now the couple are husband and wife. The husband garlands the wife and she in turn garlands her husband.

Abhishek (sprinkling of water)

The priest (or a brother of the newly wedded wife) shall sprinkle water on the foreheads of the bride and the groom. The priest recites mantras from the Rig Veda (RV X.9.1/2/3) during the sprinkling of water.

Surya Darshanam Dhyaanam Va (meditating on the sun)

Looking at or mentally visualising the sun (Surya), to give them power to lead a creative, useful and meaningful life.

The bride and the bridegroom together pray:

O God, who art the illuminator of the sun, may we, through thy grace live for a hundred years, hear for a hundred years, and speak for a hundred years. And may we never be dependent upon anybody. May we likewise live even beyond a hundred years! -Rig Veda, VII. 66. 16)

Hriday sparsh(touching the heart)

Touching the heart of the bride, the bridegroom says:

May I have hearty co-operation from these in the performance of my duties. May thou be of one mind with me. Ma thou be consentient to my speech. May the Lord of creation unite thee to me!

The bride:

May I have hearty co-operation from these in the performance of my duties. May thou be of one mind with me. May thou be consentient to my speech. May the Lord of creation unite thee to me!

Dhruva Dhyaanam Darshanam Va (meditating on the Pole star and the Arundhati star)

The Pole Star is stationary and fixed in its position, likewise the couple is expected to be steadfast and firm in fulfilling their vows and responsibilities.

The bride:

Just as the star Arundhati is attached to the star Vasishtha, so may I be ever firmly attached to my husband! Placing his hand upon the bride’s forehead

The bridegroom:As the heavens are permanently stable, as the earth is permanently stable, as these mountains are permanently stable, and as the entire universe is permanent stable, so may my wife be permanently settled in our family! -Rig Veda X.173.4 (Addressing the bride): Thou are the Pole star; I see in thee stability and firmness. Mayst thou ever be steadfast in thy affection for me. The great God has united thee with me. Mayst thou live with me, blessed with children, for a hundred years!

Anna Praashanam (partaking of food)

In the last symbolic rite the couple make offerings of food with chantings of Vedic Havan Mantras (oblations of food in the Sacred fire). Having done that, the couple feed a morsel of food to each other from the residue of the offerings. This being the symbolic expression of mutual love and affection.

Aashirvadah (blessing)

Placing his hand upon the forehead of the bride, the bridegroom says:

Ye men and women present here, behold this virtuous bride possessed of high attainments, and before ye disperse, give her your blessings! All the people present shall pronounce the following blessings upon the couple.

1.    O Lord, may this couple be prosperous!
2.    O Lord, may this couple live in perpetual happiness!
3.    O Lord, may this couple be ever infused with love for each other. May this couple be blessed with children and grandchildren and live in the best of homes for the full period of their lives!
4.    May you two live here together. May you never be parted. May you enjoy the full span of human life in the delightful company of your happy sons and grandsons!

Om Shantih, Shantih, Shantih.

Karma means "deed" or "act"

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Friday, June 22, 2012

Last updated 3 days ago

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